Glob Change Biol.
2021;00:1–16.
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1
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gcb
Received: 11 May 2021
|
Accepted: 9 October 2021
DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15954
P R I M A R Y R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E
Global variation in soil carbon sequestration potential through
improved cropland management
Malte Lessmann
|
Gerard H. Ros
|
Madaline D. Young
|
Wim de Vries
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2021 The Authors.
Global Change Biology
published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
1
Land Use Planning Group, Wageningen
University and Research, Wageningen,
The Netherlands
2
Environmental Systems Analysis Group,
Wageningen University and Research,
Wageningen, the Netherlands
Correspondence
Malte Lessmann, Wageningen University
and Research, Land Use Planning Group,
P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
Email: malte.lessmann@wur.nl
Abstract
Widespread adoption of improved cropland management measures is advocated to in
-
crease soil organic carbon (SOC) levels, thereby improving soil fertility and mitigating
climate change. However, spatially explicit insight on management impacts is limited,
which is crucial for region- specific and climate- smart practices. To overcome these
limitations, we combined global meta- analytical results on improved management
practices on SOC sequestration with spatially explicit data on current management
practices and potential areas for the adoption of these measures. We included (a) fer
-
tilization practices, i.e., use of organic fertilizer compared to inorganic fertilizer or no
fertilizer, (b) soil tillage practices, i.e., no- tillage relative to high or intermediate inten
-
sity tillage, and (c) crop management practices, i.e., use of cover crops and enhanced
crop residue incorporation. We show that the estimated global C sequestration po
-
tential varies between 0.44 and 0.68 Gt C yr
−1
, assuming maximum complementarity
among all measures taken. A more realistic estimate, not assuming maximum com
-
plementarity, is from 0.28 to 0.43 Gt C yr
−1
, being on the lower end of the current
range of 0.1– 2 Gt C yr
−1
found in the literature. One reason for the lower estimate
is the limited availability of manure that has not yet been recycled. Another reason
is the limited area for the adoption of improved measures, considering their current
application and application limitations. We found large regional differences in carbon
sequestration potential due to differences in yield gaps, SOC levels, and current prac
-
tices applied. The highest potential is found in regions with low crop production, low
initial SOC levels, and in regions where livestock manure and crop residues are only
partially recycled. Supporting previous findings, we highlight that to encourage both
soil fertility and SOC sequestration, it is best to focus on agricultural soils with large
yield gaps and/or where SOC values are below levels that may limit crop production.
K E Y W O R D S
climate change mitigation, global carbon sequestration potential, management impacts, meta-
analysis, soil organic carbon
2
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LESSMANN
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1
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INTRODUCTION
1.1
|
Impacts of agricultural management on soil
carbon sequestration
Agricultural soils are under considerable threat due to unsustain
-
able cultivation practices. Intensive fertilization, tillage, and mono
-
cultures have led to negative impacts on soil quality (Chemnitz &
Weigelt, 2015), including a loss in soil organic carbon (SOC). On
a global scale, it is estimated that the SOC stock of arable soils is
depleted by 25– 75% compared to the antecedent SOC stock (Lal,
2013). SOC has important functions such as water retention or nu
-
trient supply (Vogel et al., 2018) and enhances soil biological and
physical properties such as aggregate stability and disease suppres
-
siveness (Lal, 2013; Schlatter et al., 2017). Within a broad range of
soil properties, SOC has been widely used as an indicator to evaluate
soil quality in response to management impacts under various envi
-
ronmental conditions (Bünemann et al., 2018).
Practices such as green manuring, increased cereal use in rota
-
tion schemes, inorganic fertilizer use or substitution inorganic with
organic fertilizers, crop residue incorporation, and reduced tillage
have been increasingly promoted to elevate SOC levels (Bolinder
et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2018; Spiegel et al., 2014). The importance
of SOC sequestration in arable soils on climate change mitigation
and food security has also been recognized at the COP 21 in France
in 2015, where the “4 per mille Soils for Food Security and Climate”
initiative was launched by the French Ministry of Agriculture. The
original rationale was to counteract the annual rise in atmospheric
CO
2
, estimated at 4.3 Gt C yr
−1
in the period 2003– 2012 (Le Quéré
et al., 2014). The desired reduction originated from an estimated
emission decline of 0.9 Gt C yr
−1
from halting deforestation and an
annual 0.4% increase in SOC in the top 40 cm of all non- permafrost,
agricultural, and non- agricultural soils (http://4p1000.org/). Since
then, however, the global potential of SOC sequestration has been
questioned, as the potential is likely limited to unfertilized, non-
agricultural land (Van Groenigen et al., 2017; de Vries, 2018).
1.2
|
Global soil carbon sequestration potential of
agricultural management practices
Current estimates of the global SOC sequestration potential of agri
-
cultural management in cropland range between 0.1 and 2 Gt C yr
−1
.
Fuss et al. (2018) provided a summary of 22 articles with global SOC
potentials from improved management based on per- area sequestra
-
tion estimates. Their synthesis suggested that individual practices
applied to global croplands have a potential ranging from 0.4 to 0.8
Gt C yr
−1
. These estimates were based on a variety of global studies
making assumptions on the areas available and the type of practices
applied. For instance, Zomer et al. (2017) suggested global esti
-
mates of 0.9– 1.85 Gt C yr
−1
, assuming that practices including cover
cropping, manure application, and reduced tillage could sequester
about 0.56– 1.15 t C ha
– 1
yr
– 1
. Paustian et al. (2016) suggested lower
ranges of about 0.08– 0.4 Gt C yr
−1
for improved cropland manage
-
ment including reduced tillage, improved nutrient management, and
crop rotation. For the adoption of no tillage, Powlson et al. (2014)
estimated an annual accumulation rate of 0.3 t C ha
– 1
yr
– 1
given in-
creases of 0.17 Gt C yr
−1
when applied to a global cereal cropping
area of 559 Mha (excluding current no till areas). For cover crop cul
-
tivation, Poeplau and Don (2015) provided an estimate of 0.12 Gt C
yr
−1
assuming that cover crops are used in 25% of the total cropland
area (400 Mha).
More recently, Minasny et al. (2017) evaluated sequestration
potentials for a range of management impacts in 20 world regions
and found a global sequestration potential of 2– 3 Gt C yr
−1
in the
top 1 m of the soil profile. However, their estimates were criticized
by de Vries (2018) due to the inclusion of around 5000 Mha of non-
managed arable land and grassland, where there is a lack of nutrients
such as N and P to sequester the carbon. In view of stoichiometric
considerations for C, N, and P, their estimate was considered im
-
plausible (Van Groenigen et al., 2017; de Vries, 2018). Similarly, SOC
potentials by Paustian et al. (2016) and Smith et al. (2008) were likely
overestimated due to their assumptions made on the area available
for improved management practices.
Apart from stoichiometric considerations, there are various
other limitations in the earlier estimates on global C sequestration
potentials from improved management. First, estimates are often
limited to individual practices, such as no tillage (Powlson et al.,
2014) or cover crop cultivation (Poeplau & Don, 2015), or no distinc
-
tion is made between specific management measures (Zomer et al.,
2017). Second, studies providing estimates for management impacts
on SOC do often not account for the appropriate areas available to
apply these practices. For example, in the case of organic manure
application and crop residue incorporation, potentials are limited by
the amount of manure or crop residues that is not yet recycled or
incorporated. Moreover, for assessing the global impact of reduced
or no tillage, better insight is needed into the current application of
(conventional) tillage and the potentially suitable areas where it may
be reduced (Porwollik et al., 2019). Similar reasoning holds for crop
diversification and crop residue use.
Considering the above- mentioned limitations, Amelung et al.
(2020) stressed that the 4p1000 initiative is an aspirational goal due
to its dependency on land use, soil, and climatic regions, but also in
-
spirational since opportunities for climate change mitigation may go
hand in hand with improvements in soil health and food production
security. They proposed the establishment of a soil information sys
-
tem to assess SOC sequestration potentials, with a focus on regions
where nutrient management would enhance both crop production
and SOC.
1.3
|
Aim of this study
This paper focuses on the potential to sequester carbon in soil via
improved cropland management (estimated at 1510– 1611 Mha or
11– 12% of total global land; Lambin and Meyfroidt (2011)). Insight
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LESSMANN
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on the expected spatial variation of SOC response to management
measures in croplands at a global scale would be highly desirable in
view of the global- scale soil climate mitigation strategy advocated
by Amelung et al. (2020). Until now, such an insight is lacking. This
study aims to extend our insights by combining results of recent
global meta- studies on SOC changes due to improved agricultural
measures with spatial information on their potential application in
croplands. More specifically, we did so by: (a) collecting reported
meta- analytical effect sizes on SOC changes in the soil in response
to improved fertilization, reduced tillage, increased crop rotation,
and improved crop residue management in different climate zones
and (b) multiplying this with an estimate of the area where each
measure can be applied, considering their current application and
application limitations. By doing so, we come up with reliable ranges
in SOC sequestration for each practice as a function of regional site
properties and more realistic estimates of the potential global SOC
sequestration in croplands.
2
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1
|
Review of meta- analytical studies
2.1.1 | Data collection
Effects of agricultural management impacts on SOC and related
site- specific factors were retrieved from published meta- studies and
systematic reviews, focusing on cropland on non- peaty soils. Peer-
reviewed publications were collected using the advanced search
function in Scopus to identify matches for the title, abstract and
keywords of papers, with search strings organized by: study type,
subject, interventions, and measured the response given in Table S1.
Further synthesis data were included from the European Catch- C
project report (Spiegel et al., 2014).
After bibliometric querying, publications were assessed based
on a pre- defined set of criteria. Studies were selected when in
-
cluding SOC changes from agronomic management for at least one
of the defined management interventions listed in Table 1. We ex
-
cluded reviews that were not based on results from long- term field
experiments. Moreover, studies that focused on combining effects
of multiple management practices such as integrated farming were
not retained. For the included studies, information was extracted
on regional coverage (temperate, subtropical, tropical), site-
specific factors (soil properties, climatic conditions, management-
related factors), study duration (average, range), sampling depth
(average, range), and corresponding changes on SOC. SOC stock
changes (in t C ha
−1
, t C ha
−1
yr
−1
) and concentration changes (in g
C kg
−1
) were commonly reported as the raw mean difference be
-
tween treatment and control group over a given study period. The
relative change (% yr
−1
, %) was also recorded from the reported
(response) ratio between treatment and control. Measures of vari
-
ation were extracted as standard error, 95% confident interval,
and standard deviation.
2.1.2 | Data retrieval
An overview of the original treatment and control groups from
meta- studies classified according to the management and interven
-
tion classes is provided in Table 1. Detailed information on the in
-
cluded meta- studies for different measures, with original treatment
and control group descriptions, is given in Table S2 and an overview
of the identified studies classified per management and metric of
SOC changes is provided in Table S3. A total of 20 meta- studies and
quantitative reviews were included analyzing agricultural manage
-
ment impacts on SOC for a wide range of management, climatic
zones, soil types, and cropping systems on a global scale and Europe.
While most studies focused on individual management impacts, a
few studies addressed multiple interventions (Aguilera et al., 2013;
Spiegel et al., 2014; West & Post, 2002). Additive effects on SOC
due to combined management, however, were not assessed.
Increased inorganic fertilization (M1) included a wide variety of
treatments such as (un) balanced chemical N, P, K fertilization, and
N addition only (Table 1). Similarly, increased organic matter input
(M2) included a wide range of treatments such as slurry, farmyard
manure, and organic amendments. We added an additional interven
-
tion (straw return
+
chemical fertilizer vs. no fertilizer (CRF- NF)) to
the M2 measure based on the data provided by Han et al. (2016).
There was no uniform approach used by meta- studies to assess
changes in SOC (Table S3). Changes were expressed as percent (in %
or % yr
−1
), concentration (in g kg
−1
or g kg
−1
yr
−1
), or stock (in t C ha
−1
or t C ha
−1
yr
−1
). SOC concentrations were usually provided when
data on bulk densities were lacking (Han et al., 2016; Ladha et al.,
2011; McDaniel et al., 2014). Measures of variation were most often
reported as standard error or 95% confidence interval, and a few
studies provided standard deviations. SOC changes per manage
-
ment and climate zone were extracted directly from tables and text if
possible, or otherwise from figures using WebPlotDigitizer (Rohatgi,
2018). Other factors such as fertilizer application rates or soil types
could not be accounted for due to lacking information. When no sep
-
arate estimates on SOC changes per climate zone were provided,
data were classified based on the geographic coverage of the study.
Where possible, soil depth and study duration were recorded sepa
-
rately for each management intervention and climate zone, other
-
wise, the range or average was reported per management.
2.1.3 | Data analysis
To reach a uniform comparison and global upscaling approach, all
data on SOC concentration changes were converted to annual stock
changes in t C ha
−1
yr
−1
. The Annual stock change was chosen in order
to describe the absolute amount of carbon that has been lost or se
-
questered to and from the atmosphere. From the initial 20 meta-
studies, only 14 meta- studies could be used to derive absolute values
on stock changes as the remaining studies only provided estimates on
relative SOC changes with missing data on initial stocks. Information
on the studies that were ultimately used is given in Table S3.
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From those 14 studies, 11 studies provided original SOC stock
change data, while it lacked in 3 studies, i.e., in Lu et al. (2011), partly
in Haddaway et al. (2017) and Han et al. (2016). For Lu et al. (2011),
we multiplied the average initial stock (t C ha
−1
) by the change in SOC
(%) in response to inorganic N addition relative to no fertilization.
The meta- study by Haddaway et al. (2017) provided only part of the
data on SOC stock changes, all data on SOC concentration changes
as well as the field study coordinates. To include all their data, we
converted the concentration changes into stock changes using spa
-
tially explicit and soil layer- dependent bulk density estimates from
the SoilGrids dataset (which provides global estimates at 250m reso
-
lution based on ca. 150,000 soil profiles; Hengl et al., 2014, 2017).
More specifically, we transformed SOC concentrations to stocks by
multiplying the soil depth (m) with the bulk density (kg m
−3
) and the
given change in SOC concentration (g kg
−1
), giving the stock in g m
−2
,
which is equal to 0.01 t C ha
−1
. The study by Han et al. (2016) lacks
TA B L E 1
Classification of management measures (M1– M5) and corresponding interventions in relation to original treatment and control
groups from meta- studies
Measure
Description measure Intervention
Description intervention
(treatment – control)
Original treatment description
Original control
description
M1
Increased inorganic
fertilization
IF- NF
Inorganic fertilization – No
fertilization
Balanced chemical N,P,K
fertilizer;
Unbalanced chemical N,P,K
fertilizer;
Synthetic N addition;
N fertilizer addition;
Mineral N fertilizer
No fertilizer
M2
Increased organic
inputs
OF- NF
Organic fertilization – No
fertilization
Organic amendments;
Manure application
No fertilizer
OF- IF
Organic fertilization – Inorganic
fertilization
Organic amendments;
Manure application;
Bovine slurry application;
Farmyard manure application
Conventional
management;
Mineral N fertilizer
COF- NF
Combined organic
+
inorganic
fertilization – No fertilization
Manure
+
chemical N,P,K
fertilizer;
Organic
+
synthetic N fertilizer
No fertilizer
COF- IF
Combined organic
+
inorganic
fertilization – Inorganic
fertilization
Bovine slurry
+
mineral N
fertilizer;
Farmyard manure
+
mineral N
fertilizer
Mineral N fertilizer
CRF- NF
Combined straw return
+
inorganic
fertilization – No fertilization
Straw return
+
chemical N,P,K
fertilizer
No fertilizer
M3
Reduced tillage
IT- HT
Intermediate intensity till – High
intensity till
Reduced till;
Intermediate intensity till;
Minimum and reduced non-
inversion till
Conventional till;
Deep inversion till;
High intensity till
NT- HT
No till – High intensity till
No till
Conventional till;
Full inversion till;
Ploughing;
Inversion till
NT- IT
No till – Intermediate intensity till
No till
Intermediate intensity till
M4
Increased crop
diversity
C
Increased rotations (excl. cover
crops) – Monoculture
Crop rotations without cover
crops
Monoculture
CC
Increased rotations
+
cover crops
– Monoculture
Cover cropped rotations;
Enhancement of rotation
complexity
Bare fallows;
Rotations without cover
crops;
Monoculture (grain);
No cover crops;
Monoculture or bare
fallows
CCP
Perennial cropped rotations
– Monoculture
Perennial cropped rotations
Monoculture (grain)
M5
Crop residue
incorporation
CRES
Crop residue incorporation –
Residue removal
Return of crop residues;
Corn stover retention
Removal of crop residues
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original field study coordinates; hence, we assigned an average bulk
density value of 1400 kg m
−3
, considering a global range (
>
90% of
the values within this range) of approximately 1200– 1600 kg m
−3
for
mineral topsoils (0– 30 cm) in SoilGrids (Hengl et al., 2017).
Secondly, meta- study estimates were normalized by dividing the
derived stock changes by an overall duration of 20 years to allow for
a balanced evaluation and comparison of the impacts of measures.
The reference period of 20 years was selected as it was the median
duration from meta- studies and can be considered a representative
period to assess medium- term impacts on SOC. This normalization
came with the assumption that SOC accumulation is linear with time,
which is a simplification since SOC accumulation has been iden
-
tified as a first- order process (van Groenigen et al., 2014). Poulton
et al. (2018) showed that SOC saturation effects occurred after 80–
100 years following farmyard manure application, while simulations
by Poeplau and Don (2015) showed a new steady state for SOC
stocks after 155 years following cover crop cultivation. Since satura
-
tion effects have not been reported by meta- studies, we assume that
a linear response on the mid- term does not lead to substantial bias in
our estimates. It is, however, likely that the normalization leads to un
-
derestimations in the short term (
<
5 years) and overestimations over
the long term (
>
20 years). Third, all measures of variation were trans
-
formed into standard error (SE), using SE
=
SD/√n, when standard
deviation (SD) and sample size n (number of paired comparisons) were
provided by meta- studies. When 95% confidence intervals (CI) were
reported, the SE was calculated via CI/3.92. If studies did not report
measures of variation, we included an arbitrary SD value based on
a coefficient of variation (CV) of 1.25 times the average CV calcu
-
lated per management- climate combination. Finally, to assess the
overall impact per management- climate combination, we calculated
the weighted group mean using inverse- variance weighting (Tang
et al., 2013). This entailed that when different meta- studies covered
the same management- impact pair, we provided averages of the re
-
ported effect sizes, weighted by standard deviation following Eq. S1
and Eq. S2. Data on the absolute and relative SOC stock change thus
derived from the various meta- studies, with information on the con
-
versions done from SOC concentration to SOC stock and from total
SOC changes to annual changes, being given in Tables S7– S11.
2.2
|
Global upscaling of results
The meta- analysis results were upscaled to global SOC sequestra
-
tion potentials by multiplying the estimates per management and
climate with the potential area where the practice could be applied
(see Figure S1 for a schematic overview on the upscaling process).
Here, we made a distinction between the most important driving
factors, including fertilization level, cropping system, climate zone
(tropical, subtropical, temperate), and currently applied manage
-
ment. For fertilization, we distinguished between non, medium, and
highly fertilized systems where medium and highly fertilized crop
-
lands were further differentiated between systems with low and
high animal manure inputs. The classification was based on different
combinations of N fertilizer and N manure inputs (Table S4). For the
other management measures, we classified cropland areas accord
-
ing to no, medium, and high- intensity tillage systems, crop rotations
(with and without cereals/catch crops), and crop residue treatments
(with and without the potential for crop residue incorporation).
To estimate the areas where each of the measures could be ap
-
plied, we combined spatially explicit data from the Koeppen Geiger
classification map (Table S5) (Peel et al., 2007), the spatial production
allocation model (SPAM) for land use (Wood- Sichra et al., 2016), maps
on N fertilizer application rates (Lu & Tian, 2016), N manure produc
-
tion and application rates on cropland and grassland (Xu, Tian, et al.,
2019; Zhang et al., 2017), the global tillage system dataset (Porwollik
et al., 2019) and FAO databases on cropping systems (FAO, 2020a),
crop residue retention (FAO, 2020c), and crop residue burning (FAO,
2020b). Detailed information on the databases used and the integra
-
tion and aggregation steps to derive the respective cropland areas is
provided in the Supplementary methods. Following the cropland clas
-
sification, we multiplied the meta- analysis results with the respective
areas given the differences in interventions, i.e., differences in treat
-
ment and control. For instance, areas identified with high- intensity
tillage (HT) and intermediate intensity tillage (IT) have the potential
to be converted to no till (NT) given the estimated SOC impacts for
the NT- HT and NT- IT comparisons (Table S6). Similarly, non- fertilized
areas (with N input
<
40 kg N ha
−1
) have the potential to increase SOC
by inorganic fertilization given the IF- NF impact. The increase in SOC
due to organic fertilizers was maximized given the remaining animal
manure that is not yet used in agriculture. To estimate this amount of
recyclable animal C- manure, we subtracted the N applied on cropland
and grassland (including grazing) from the total N excreted (Xu, Tian,
et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2017), assuming a CN ratio of 10 (for the
organic fraction) and an average humification coefficient of 0.5 for
both slurry and solid manure (CBAV, 2020; Gobin et al., 2011; Veeken
et al., 2017) with the humification coefficient being defined as the
stable carbon fraction that is not decomposed within one year. The
uncertainties in the global model estimates after upscaling were as
-
sessed via Monte Carlo analysis (n
=
1000) using a normal distribu
-
tion for the estimated SOC change due to a measure, where the mean
response (as well as the variance) were derived from the weighted
group mean SOC impact of a measure using inverse- variance weight
-
ing (Tang et al., 2013; Young et al., 2020).
3
|
RESULTS
3.1
|
Carbon sequestration due to management
measures: meta- analysis results
3.1.1 | Overall impacts of management measures
Current meta- studies and quantitative reviews indicate a pro
-
nounced effect of improved fertilizer management on SOC stock
compared to reduced tillage, crop rotation, and residue incorpora
-
tion (Figure 1). The largest effects were found for combined straw
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LESSMANN
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and inorganic fertilizer application (CRF- NF) with an overall change
of 0.86 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, followed by combined organic and inorganic
fertilization (COF- NF) with 0.70 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, organic relative to no
fertilization (OF- NF) with 0.49 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, and organic relative to
inorganic fertilization (OF- IF) with 0.33 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
. For reduced till,
we found that no- till relative to high intensity- till (NT- HT) increased
SOC by 0.24 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, followed by intermediate intensity- till rela
-
tive to high intensity- till (IT- HT) with 0.14 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
and no- till rela
-
tive to intermediate intensity- till (NT- IT) with 0.13 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
. With
regard to increased crop diversity, we found that perennial cropped
rotations (CCP) caused a larger overall change (0.29 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
)
than cover cropped rotations (CC) (0.15 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
). Crop residue
incorporation (CRES) showed an average SOC change of 0.21 t C
ha
−1
yr
−1
. For inorganic fertilization, we found that balanced fertiliza
-
tion strategies (with N,P,K) had the most pronounced effects of 0.33
t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, followed by unbalanced strategies (one or two types of
N,P,K) with 0.18 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
and inorganic N addition only with 0.06
t C ha
−1
yr
−1
. Data on absolute SOC changes could not be derived for
increased crop rotations vs. monoculture (C) and combined organic
and inorganic relative to inorganic fertilizer application (COF- IF).
Detailed results of the synthesis data are provided in Tables S7– S11
for increased inorganic fertilization (M1), increased organic matter
input (M2), reduced tillage (M3), increased crop diversity (M4), and
crop residue incorporation (M5), respectively.
F I G U R E 1
Impacts of improved agricultural management on soil carbon (SOC) stock changes (in t C ha- 1 yr- 1) in the top 20– 30 cm soil
depth continued over a timeframe of 20 years. Climate zones given in legend: temperate (temp), sub- tropical (subtr) and tropical (trop). The
reference numbers refer to the data derived from the meta- studies listed in Table S2, where the letters indicate when multiple values came
from the same study. Increased inorganic fertilization (M1): inorganic fertilizer - no fertilizer (IF- NF); Increased organic matter input (M2):
Combined fertilizer relative to No Fertilizer (COF- NF), Combined Straw
+
fertilizer relative to No Fertilizer (CRF- NF), Organic Fertilizer
relative to Inorganic Fertilizer (OF- IF), Organic Fertilizer relative to No Fertilizer (OF- NF); Decreased tillage (M3): No- Till relative to High
Intensity- Till (NT- HT), No- Till relative to Intermediate Intensity- Till (NT- IT) and Intermediate Intensity- Till relative to High Intensity- Till
(IT- HT); Increased crop diversity (M4): Crop rotation
+
cover crops (CC) and perennial crop rotation (CCP); Crop residue incorporation (M5):
crop residue incorporation vs. removal (CRES). The error bars represent the standard error. More detailed information on underlying data
including sampling depths and study durations are provided in the Tables S7– S11
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To assess the overall impact per management- climate combina
-
tion, we aggregated the SOC changes from Figure 1 by calculating
the weighted group mean, giving more weight to estimates from
larger meta- studies (Table 2). The weighting did not affect SOC
changes for the management- climate groups, where multiple values
were not given (i.e., CRF- NF, COF- NF, OF- NF, CCP, CRES). For in
-
creased inorganic vs. no fertilization (IF- NF), we estimated overall
SOC changes of 0.17 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
for subtropical and tropical cli
-
mates and 0.12 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
for temperate climates. For organic vs.
inorganic fertilization (OF- IF), the overall SOC changes were found
to be 0.42 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
in temperate zones. For no till vs. high inten
-
sity till (NT- HT), we derived weighted means of 0.28 and 0.19 t C
ha
−1
yr
−1
for subtropical and temperate zones, respectively. For no till
vs. intermediate till (NT- IT), the weighted means were 0.17 and 0.09
t C ha
−1
yr
−1
in subtropical and temperate climates. Weighted means
for intermediate intensity till vs. high intensity till (IT- HT) were 0.17
and 0.10 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
in subtropical and temperate climates, respec
-
tively. For cover cropped rotations, we found an overall increase of
0.14 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
for temperate zones, where the values for tropical
and subtropical zones stayed the same.
We found the differences in SOC changes between manage
-
ment and climate zones (Figure 1, Table 2). Combined organic and
inorganic fertilization (COF- NF) and organic fertilization (OF- NF)
increased SOC levels along tropical
<
temperate
<
subtropical cli
-
mate zones. For combined straw and inorganic fertilizer application
(CRF- NF) and organic vs. inorganic fertilization (OF- IF), we observed
an increase in SOC along tropical
<
subtropical
<
temperate. Increased
inorganic fertilization showed the lowest SOC changes in temperate
zones. Similarly, in the case of reduced tillage, the increase in SOC
changes was lower in temperate compared to subtropical zones. No
values for tropical climates could be derived. For increased crop di
-
versity (CC), we found small differences in SOC along temperate
<-
subtropical
<
tropical climates.
3.2
|
Global SOC sequestration potential
The total area of cropland used for upscaling was 1,416,912 thou
-
sand hectares. Approximately 30% of the cropland area was located
in tropical climate zones, 19% in temperate zones, 30% in subtropi
-
cal or Mediterranean zones, and the remaining 21% in other climatic
zones. About 45% was characterized by high- intensity tillage sys
-
tems, whereas only 8% was cultivated with conservation agricultural
practices minimizing soil tillage. In 25% of the cropland area, sub
-
stantial amounts of crop residues were burned, whereas 72% of the
crop rotations did not include catch crops. On most arable land, less
than 40 kg N ha
−1
came from animal manure, and between 40 and
100 kg N ha
−1
came from inorganic fertilizers. Only 13% of all arable
land received high levels of both organic and inorganic fertilizers.
The measure with the highest global potential to sequester
carbon is the increased use of organic carbon inputs via organic
fertilization, ignoring the total amount of animal manure that is
available or already applied (Table 3), estimated to be an increase
of 592 Mton C yr
−1
. The global manure nitrogen production from six
livestock categories, including cattle, chickens, ducks, goats, swine,
and sheep equaled 129 Tg N yr
−1
in 2010, with data being available
at 5- arc minutes (Zhang et al., 2017). Assuming a C:N ratio of about
10, being the average C:N value for slurry (approximately 8) and
solid manure (approximately 15), the total estimated C produced
via animal manure is 1310 Mton C yr
−1
, but might range between
TA B L E 2
Weighted mean SOC stock changes (t C ha
−1
yr
−1
± standard error) per management and climate zone for the top 20- 30cm
soil depth. Increased inorganic fertilization (M1): inorganic fertilizer— no fertilizer (IF- NF); Increased organic matter input (M2): Combined
fertilizer relative to No Fertilizer (COF- NF), Combined Straw +fertilizer relative to No Fertilizer (CRF- NF), Organic Fertilizer relative to
Inorganic Fertilizer (OF- IF), Organic Fertilizer relative to No Fertilizer (OF- NF); Decreased tillage (M3): No- Till relative to High Intensity- Till
(NT- HT), No- Till relative to Intermediate Intensity- Till (NT- IT) and Intermediate Intensity- Till relative to High Intensity- Till (IT- HT); Increased
crop diversity (M4): Crop rotation +cover crops (CC) and perennial crop rotation (CCP); Crop residue incorporation (M5): crop residue
incorporation vs. removal (CRES)
Measure
Intervention Category
Weighted mean SOC stock changes in t C ha
−1
yr
−1
±
standard error
Temperate
Subtropical
Tropical
Other
M1
IF- NF
0.12
±
0.01
0.17
±
0.02
0.17
±
0.04
0.14
±
0.01
M2
COF- NF
0.68
±
0.06
0.90
±
0.12
0.51
±
0.05
0.59
±
0.04
CRF- NF
0.98
±
0.16
0.89
±
0.06
0.71
±
0.14
0.85
±
0.05
OF- IF
0.42
±
0.11
0.37
±
0.07
0.20
±
0.04
0.29
±
0.04
OF- NF
0.53
±
0.14
0.63
±
0.11
0.31
±
0.07
0.43
±
0.05
M3
IT- HT
0.10
±
0.02
0.17
±
0.04
–
0.13
±
0.01
NT- HT
0.19
±
0.03
0.28
±
0.05
–
0.23
±
0.02
NT- IT
0.09
±
0.03
0.17
±
0.06
–
0.10
±
0.03
M4
CC
0.14
±
0.01
0.15
±
0.06
0.17
±
0.03
0.15
±
0.01
CCP
0.29
±
0.19
–
–
0.29
±
0.19
M5
CRES
0.21
±
0.02
–
–
0.21
±
0.02
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LESSMANN
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1048 and 1965 Mton C yr
−1
. However, only part of the manure ex
-
creted actually goes to cropland since the part is left on pasture
due to grazing and part is burned as fuel. Since the currently ap
-
plied manure does not lead to additional C sequestration in soil,
we calculated the amount of manure available in each country cur
-
rently being wasted or burned (see supplementary methods), being
less than 10% of the total excreted amount. Considering the appli
-
cation of unused manure, this leads to a corrected C sequestration
in soil use of up to 26– 30 Mtons C yr
−1
.
The second important measure controlling the potential of soils
to sequester C is the adoption of no- till and minimum tillage prac
-
tices in arable cropping systems. The total C sequestration ranges
from 42 to 82 Mton yr
−1
over the different climate zones, resulting
in an estimated total C sequestration potential of 227 Mton yr
−1
.
Increasing the inorganic N dose in arable systems increases the net
C input by about 78 Mton C yr
−1
via root C inputs in the rhizosphere
(via root biomass and exudates) and via non- harvestable crop res
-
idues leftover on the field after harvest. Increasing crop diversifi
-
cation as well as the use of catch crops and cereals within arable
crop rotation schemes has the potential to sequester an additional
153 Mton of C yr
−1
. Since the incorporation of crop residues is a well-
established practice in most countries, the impact of this measure is
limited to about 73 Mton C year
−1
.
Assuming that the individual evaluated measures mentioned
here are complementary to each other, the total C sequestration
potential might increase up to 561 Mton C year
−1
on arable systems
worldwide. Using a simple weighting factor where the additive con
-
tribution declines with the order of the measure when sorted from
highest to lowest impact, the total C sequestration potential is about
354 Mton C year
−1
and could vary from 278 to 432 Mton C year
−1
.
The highest impact of inorganic fertilization is visible in parts of
Africa and Southern and North America due to the expected yield
increase from additional nitrogen inputs. Minimal soil tillage has the
biggest impact in agricultural regions that have the potential to shift
away from intensive tillage systems, and these occur over the whole
globe with high potential for the USA, Europe, and parts of Northern
Africa (Figure 2). Crop diversification and the use of catch crops are
applicable in most regions.
4
|
DISCUSSION
4.1
|
Impacts of management on SOC stock
changes
4.1.1 | Overall impacts
In our study, we made use of reported meta- data to approximate
overall SOC changes in soils in response to a wide range of man
-
agement measures and different climate zones. The overall im
-
pacts of improved cropland management on SOC ranged on an
average from 0.2 to 0.6 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
. Compared to other global fig
-
ures, literature shows comparable ranges of 0.2– 0.4 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
(Dawson & Smith, 2007) and 0.2– 0.5 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
(Minasny et al.,
2017), as well as higher values of 0.56– 1.15 t C ha
– 1
yr
−1
(Zomer
et al., 2017). Organic matter inputs led to the highest mean SOC
changes (0.6 t C ha
– 1
yr
−1
), followed by crop residue incorporation
(0.21 t C ha
– 1
yr
−1
), reduced tillage (0.18 t C ha
– 1
yr
−1
), increased
crop diversity (0.18 t C ha
– 1
yr
−1
), and increased inorganic fertiliza
-
tion (0.15 t C ha
– 1
yr
−1
). In comparison, the synthesis of reviews by
Bolinder et al. (2020) found the highest average SOC changes from
manure application (
~
0.4 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
), followed by cover crops
(
~
0.3 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
), nitrogen fertilization (
~
0.23 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
), and
crop residue retention (
~
0.12 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
). Minasny et al. (2017)
found the highest SOC changes from organic amendments (
~
0.5 t
C ha
−1
yr
−1
), followed by residue incorporation (
~
0.35 C ha
−1
yr
−1
),
no or reduced till (
~
0.3 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
), and crop rotation (
~
0.2 t C
ha
– 1
yr
−1
).
When looking into the effects of the management interventions,
we observed more pronounced effects from combined organic and
inorganic vs. no fertilization (COF- NF), compared to organic vs. no
fertilization (OF- NF) and organic vs. inorganic fertilization (OF- IF)
TA B L E 3
Potential C sequestration (in Mton C year
−1
) per measure and climate zone for the top 20– 30 cm soil depth. Values between
brackets are with 0.01 and 0.99 confidence intervals
Climate zone
M1
M2
M2cor
M3
M4
M5
Inorganic
fertilizer
Organic fertilizer
Organic
fertilizer
Tillage
Catch crops
Crop
residue
Subtropical-
Mediterranean
21
(18– 23)
235
(142– 326)
10
(6– 10)
82
(50– 114)
49
(2– 96)
27
(21– 33)
Temperate
9
(8– 10)
114
(82– 145)
6
(5– 6)
42
(29– 56)
33
(29– 38)
22
(17– 27)
Tropical
35
(27– 45)
139
(85– 199)
8
(8– 8)
58
(39– 77)
34
(23– 45)
8
(6– 10)
Other
13
(13– 14)
104
(82– 125)
6
(5– 6)
45
(32– 57)
37
(33– 41)
16
(12– 20)
all
78
(70– 88)
592
(467– 713)
30
(26– 30)
227
(182– 273)
153
(106– 202)
73
(56– 90)
|
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LESSMANN
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with 0.70, 0.49, and 0.33 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, respectively. The overall posi
-
tive influence of inorganic fertilization on SOC with 0.2 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
could explain the difference in SOC between the management
classes (COF- NF vs. OF- NF). The magnitude of this effect, however,
strongly depends on the type of organic and inorganic fertilizers
considered (Figure 1, Tables S7 and S8). Moreover, while the effects
of increased organic matter inputs on SOC are directly linked to the
type and amount of material applied, SOC responses to inorganic
fertilizer application are indirectly linked to increased crop produc
-
tivity resulting in higher carbon inputs (Geisseler & Scow, 2014;
Poffenbarger et al., 2017). Furthermore, Han et al. (2016) indicated
that inorganic fertilizers and straw mulching interacted, leading to
increased SOC changes potentially due to the positive effects of
straw application on enhanced nitrogen use efficiencies increasing
crop productivity and therefore enhancing C inputs. Aguilera et al.
(2013) did not find higher SOC changes for the combination of com
-
post and cover cropping when compared to compost application
only. Based on these findings, it is not clear whether the impacts
of management are additive since the effects on SOC can be differ
-
ent per management and a variety of interactions might play a role.
Though the impact of inorganic fertilization dose on SOC changes
could not be derived from existing meta- analytical studies, we in
-
cluded a negative feedback mechanism in the upscaling procedure
allowing for higher fertilizer induced SOC changes in unfertilized or
less fertilized soils.
4.1.2 | Impacts of climate
Based on our results there are no clear trends between climatic and
management effects on SOC. Reduced tillage and organic fertilization
were found to increase SOC along subtropical
>
temperate
>
tropical
zones. For increased crop diversity, aSOC changes were greater in
tropical
>
subtropical
>
temperate zones. Inorganic fertilization ef
-
fects were most pronounced in subtropical
>
tropical
>
temperate cli
-
mates. Due to a lack of data, it was not possible to make a climatic
distinction for crop residue incorporation.
When comparing our results with the literature, we find cer
-
tain discrepancies. Smith et al. (2008) estimated higher average
SOC changes following reduced tillage and residue management in
tropical moist, followed by tropical dry, temperate moist, and tem
-
perate dry regions. Data on tillage impacts in tropical regions were
limited in their study, however, leading to potential uncertainties in
their estimates for tropical zones (Smith et al., 2008). In contrast,
Luo et al. (2010) suggested that the effect on SOC changes fol
-
lowing reduced tillage was minimized in humid environments po
-
tentially due to faster decomposition of organic matter in surface
layers, lowering the net impact of reduced tillage on SOC changes.
Correspondingly, several field studies found that reduced tillage
had more positive effects on SOC changes in dry compared to
wet regions, potentially due to reduced SOC mineralization under
dry conditions (Blanco- Moure et al., 2013; Dimassi et al., 2014).
F I G U R E 2
The soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration potential (in kg C /ha arable land / year) estimated in the top 20– 30 cm soil
depth for four agronomic measures (a) addition of inorganic fertilizers, (b) addition of organic fertilizers, (c) switching to no and minimal
tillage and (d) catch crops and crop diversification as estimated from meta- analytical field experiments and extrapolated to all arable agro-
ecosystems given the climate zone, soil tillage practices, and crop rotation system. The legend differs per map
10
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LESSMANN
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Moreover, Cooper et al. (2016) found that the adoption of reduced
till led to increased crop yields in Mediterranean systems, while the
yields decreased in humid continental and humid oceanic regions
under reduced tillage regimes. Besides reduced mineralization,
the positive effects of reduced till on SOC under dryer climatic
conditions might be linked to an increase in aboveground C inputs
via enhanced crop production and residues remaining at the soil
surface. Virto et al. (2012) found that about 30% of the variability
of SOC stock changes under reduced tillage was attributed to dif
-
ferences in crop C inputs. Increased C inputs via organic matter ap
-
plication were also found to have more positive effects on SOC in
temperate warm compared to temperate cool and tropical climates
(Maillard & Angers, 2014). However, the authors noticed that trop
-
ical zones received overall lower manure C inputs compared to
temperate regions which might explain the difference. Similarly,
Han et al. (2016) found overall higher absolute SOC responses in
temperate compared to tropical climates following improved fertil
-
ization. However, the opposite trend was found when the authors
calculated the relative (percent) SOC changes. Han et al. (2016)
suggested that the different effects on SOC could be attributed
to differences in field study durations and initial SOC levels that
varied per climate zone. In fact, it is likely that SOC changes per
climate zone and management provided by our meta- studies are
biased due to the experimental subsets that differ in properties.
The most relevant factors identified by meta- studies included in
our review were study duration, sampling depth, initial SOC lev
-
els and quality, and type of aboveground C inputs. Our results are
likely to be sensitive to variations in these parameters.
4.1.3 | Impacts of other factors
Study duration
: We found a large diversity of field study durations
included in meta- studies and systematic reviews. While some au
-
thors included studies with durations of less than 5 years (Jian
et al., 2020; Ogle et al., 2005; Xu, Sieverding, et al., 2019), others
included studies with minimum durations of more than 5 years
(Angers & Eriksen- Hamel, 2008; Virto et al., 2012; West & Post,
2002). Haddaway et al. (2017) used stricter inclusion criteria by
selecting field studies that ran more than 10 years. Using stricter
inclusion criteria leads to less variation in study durations be
-
tween subgroups and, therefore, more robust estimates on SOC
changes.
Sampling depth
: Meta- studies on increased fertilization and
cover cropping often focus on average SOC changes in the top
20 cm (Han et al., 2016; King & Blesh, 2018; Poeplau & Don,
2015), while tillage studies mostly focus on the top 30- cm depth
(Haddaway et al., 2017; Meurer et al., 2018; Virto et al., 2012). The
overall deeper sampling depths for tillage studies stem from the
fact that tillage effects on SOC have been widely attributed to a
redistribution of carbon in the plough layer, which is usually up to
30 cm. However, as tillage was often applied as co- management in
other meta- studies such as those on cover cropping (King & Blesh,
2018; Poeplau & Don, 2015), it is, therefore, likely that the esti
-
mates on cover cropping in the top 20 cm are underestimated be
-
cause one- third of the cover crop effect could have been missed,
as stressed by Poeplau and Don (2015).
Soil texture
: Although soil texture is known to play an import
-
ant role in stabilizing SOC (Virto et al., 2012), the findings on in
-
teractions between soil texture and SOC responses were often
inconsistent among meta- studies as also found in the synthesis of
reviews by Bolinder et al. (2020). Besides this, we could not distin
-
guish SOC changes in response to different soil texture and climatic
zones as most meta- studies did not provide separate estimates per
management- soil- climate combination which hampered to create
an additional stratification level for SOC responses in different soil
types.
Manure quality
: Furthermore, manure quality can affect the SOC
sequestration rate (Berti et al., 2016). The included meta- studies
which provided data on liquid and solid manure, e.g., Maillard and
Angers (2014) could, however, not evaluate the effects of solid and
liquid manure on SOC stock changes due to the limited field study
data on liquid manure. The meta- study by Zavattaro et al. (2017)
found, however, that the C sequestration potential from cattle farm
-
yard manure was almost twice as high compared to a liquid slurry
(see Table S8).
4.1.4 | Uncertainties in estimated SOC
stock changes
The reliability of the calculated SOC stock changes is affected
by many factors. One factor is the used bulk density to approxi
-
mate stocks from concentrations. In the majority of the stud
-
ies, bulk density was measured, while in only two studies, i.e.,
Haddaway et al. (2017) and Han et al. (2016), it was estimated.
Unfortunately, we were not able to use pedo- transfer functions
to estimate bulk density from reported SOC concentrations (for
an overview of various equations: see Gross and Glaser, (2021))
since original field study data from the relevant meta- studies
were rarely provided. The uncertainty induced using an estimated
bulk density is likely not more than 15% in the study by Han et al.
(2016), where we used an average bulk density of 1400 kg m
−3
,
considering a global range of approximately 1200– 1600 kg m
−3
.
The uncertainty in the results of our study based on the tillage
experiments reported by Haddaway et al. (2017) is likely even less
since we were using spatially explicit and soil layer- dependent
bulk density estimates.
The impact of the large variability of field study data (i.e.,
differing residue management, crop rotation sequences, fertil
-
izer management, etc.) in the various experiments on SOC stock
changes is likely as significant as the uncertainty induced by the
variation in bulk densities. This is illustrated by our results from
the meta- study of Haddaway et al. (2017) on tillage impacts
compared to the original results (Figure S2). This study provided
SOC stock changes, based on measured bulk densities, for part
|
11
LESSMANN
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of the data, but also provided information on SOC concentration
changes with coordinates of the original field- study data for all
data. This allowed us to convert SOC concentration to stock
changes using spatially explicit and soil layer- dependent bulk
density estimates from SoilGrids (Hengl et al., 2014). The results
(Figure S2) show that the estimated average stock changes from
concentration data derived in this study are comparable to the
measured SOC stock changes in the part of the data provided by
Haddaway et al. (2017), but differences up to 15% do occur. The
increased sample size in estimated stocks (275 pairwise tillage
comparisons) compared to measured stocks only (127 pairwise
tillage comparisons) leads to smaller variances and, therefore,
more robust effect size estimates. Using fixed bulk densities,
we also assumed that the overall effect of management on bulk
density was negligible. Certain studies reported that reduced
tillage can have positive effects on bulk density (Chatterjee &
Lal, 2009; Dimassi et al., 2013), resulting in a potential overesti
-
mation in the derived SOC changes when using fixed bulk den
-
sities. Meurer et al. (2018) thus used the Equivalent Soil Mass
(ESM) approach (Ellert & Bettany, 1995) to account for a de
-
crease in bulk density due to less compaction while using data
from tillage experiments by Haddaway et al. (2017). However,
our results on stock estimates, based on the same Haddaway
data and using a fixed bulk density approach, were not system
-
atically different from those by Meurer et al. (2018). In contrast,
the increased input of organic matter as compost can have neg
-
ative effects on bulk density, but this has only been reported
for exceptional cases with high doses applied over long time
periods (Aguilera et al., 2013). The impacts of cover crop intro
-
duction and N addition on bulk density were found to be negli
-
gible (Lu et al., 2011; Poeplau & Don, 2015). In summary, most
studies included measured data on bulk density, and impact of
the variation and change in bulk densities on estimated SOC
stock changes is limited.
Finally, our approach of using inverse variance weighting to
summarize the meta- study results comes with uncertainties in the
estimated stock changes. Other than collecting data on all individ
-
ual field study experiments from related meta- studies to calculate
the effect sizes, we decided to directly summarize the findings of
the meta- analyses to highlight the overall impact of management-
climate combinations on C sequestration potentials. For this, we
used the inverse variance weighting method proposed by Tang
et al. (2013) and as a consequence, we could not account for non-
independence as multiple meta- analyses might include the same
field study experiments potentially leading to biased variance es
-
timates (Nakagawa et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2013). This, however,
does not invalidate our calculation of the effect sizes itself, but
potentially resulted in underestimating the variances of the meta-
analyses results (Tang et al., 2013). Due to a lack of data on the
number of overlapping field studies from meta- studies, we could
not correct for this bias in variance estimates, e.g., by including an
inflation factor based on the number of overlapping field studies
as proposed by Tang et al. (2013).
4.2
|
Upscaling of results to the global scale
4.2.1 | Global- scale SOC sequestration potential
In our study, we estimated the potential C sequestration in agricul
-
tural soils by assessing the areas where the measure can be applied,
correcting for the areas where it has already been applied. The lat
-
ter correction has not been applied by other global upscaling ap
-
proaches, e.g., Zomer et al. (2017), Smith et al. (2008). With respect
to replacing inorganic with organic fertilizer, we accounted for the
fact that only the manure that is not currently recycled is available
for the use on cropland. The C sequestration potential of manure
currently applied to grassland soils has not been addressed in our
study but might offer additional C storage potential when applied on
croplands instead.
The fact that the comparison of organic farming versus conven
-
tional farming is mostly a movement of C from one site to another is
often ignored in studies assessing the potential SOC sequestration
of organic manure application (Leifeld et al., 2013). Our data indi
-
cate that
<
10% of the excreted manure is burned or wasted rather
than recycled, which is in line with data presented by Uwizeye et al.
(2020) for nitrogen. It strongly limits the potential of this method for
SOC sequestration.
To increase SOC sequestration, we highlight the areas with large
yield gaps have a high potential, which applies to many soils depleted
in nutrients and organic matter, such as in sub- Saharan Africa, South
Asia, and subtropical and West Asia, as well as, further focusing on
temperate soils where low SOC values may limit crop production
(Oldfield et al., 2019). In these areas, there is the potential to raise
food production by 42– 70%, and to eventually even double it (Lobell
et al., 2009; Mueller et al., 2012; see also www.yield gap.org), which
would largely enhance the crop residue input and subsequent C se
-
questration. Potential for measures reducing C decomposition via
transition to minimal or no till systems apply for USA, Europe, and
part of Northern Africa. Opportunities for C sequestration thus vary
across regions given the local management and biophysical site con
-
ditions (Amelung et al., 2020) which control decomposition rates as
well as net C inputs. The highest potential is found in regions with
low crop production, low initial soil organic C levels, and in regions
where livestock manure and crop residues are removed rather than
applied to the soil. Practices that retain and increase SOC are well
established and can increase the annual C stock between 440 and
683 Mton C yr
−1
as shown from our analysis for cropland in non-
peaty soils, thereby assuming maximum complementarity among
measures taken.
Recently, Fuss et al. (2018) summarized 22 studies with global
potentials for soil carbon sequestration due to measures that in
-
crease carbon inputs and decrease carbon losses (mostly through
decreased soil disturbance). All estimates are calculated in terms of a
per- area sequestration potential, whereas most of the variation was
related to different assumptions on the areas available (i.e., area of
managed cropland, grassland, degraded land) and the type of prac
-
tices applied. For individual practices, the technical potentials for
12
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AL
.
croplands vary from 1.47 to 2.93 Gt CO
2
yr
−1
(or 0.41– 0.80 Gt C
yr
−1
). Our estimate is strongly data- driven and accounts for the cur
-
rent state of agricultural management, and hence, the potential is
lower than the previous estimates. It also shows that the potential
to sequester C in soil differs strongly from one region to another
due to variations in the gaps between current and potential SOC
levels. Our analysis supports the conclusion of Amelung et al. (2020)
that a coordinated effort is required to identify effective measures
adapted to the specific site properties controlling the potential to
retain carbon. This requires spatially explicit and detailed insights on
yield gaps, organic carbon levels, and the agronomic practices that
are currently applied.
4.2.2 | Uncertainties in global scale SOC
sequestration estimates
Even though our study follows a straightforward method for
global estimation of potential C sequestration, potential errors
might arise from the quality of the underlying meta- analytical
models, the assumptions around the potential area where agro
-
nomic measures can be applied as well as the system bounda
-
ries defined (e.g., by the total volume of C- manure available and
the assumption of an equilibrium status for soil organic matter
in arable soils). Where the Monte Carlo approach accounted for
the uncertainty related to the meta- analytical models used, and
total areas and C manure inputs were checked by global esti
-
mates from supporting papers, an in- depth analysis of the error
propagation of all data sources along the upscaling procedure
has not been done since uncertainties on national statistics and
open data sources are largely unknown and often not available.
Crop land areas, as well as areas for application of C mitigating
measures, have been derived from national statistics, ignoring
the spatial variability in soil properties as well as management
practices at farm and field level. New innovative downscaling
procedures using remote sensing techniques will therefore re
-
duce the uncertainty related to spatial allocation procedures
(Amelung et al., 2020), in particular when ensemble methods
are used to reduce error propagation (Van Looy et al., 2017).
Similarly, high- resolution soil property maps (Poggio et al., 2021;
Van Looy et al., 2017) in combination with monthly weather data
might help to underpin the actual soil C stocks, as well as decom
-
position rates, allowing more robust estimates of the
actual
C
sequestration potential.
The meta- analytical data on management impacts in tropical cli
-
mates were systematically underrepresented due to fewer field study
experiments performed in tropical climates as compared to tem
-
perate and sub- tropical regions (Maillard & Angers, 2014; Poeplau
& Don, 2015; Virto et al., 2012). Especially data on tillage impacts
were heavily skewed toward field experiments performed in North
America and Europe and, therefore, mostly representing impacts in
temperate regions. To still obtain an overall effect estimate for trop
-
ical regions in the upscaling, we thus combined the effect sizes from
all climate zones using the weighted average estimate. Considering
that several meta- studies on fertilization effects found that soils
in tropical climates had overall lower potentials to store SOC than
soils in temperate climates (Gross & Glaser, 2021; Ladha et al., 2011;
Maillard & Angers, 2014), tillage impacts are likely overestimated in
the upscaling for tropical regions. This hypothesis should, however,
be substantiated by further measurements in tropical climates as the
climatic effects on SOC sequestration remain rather inconsistent
among meta- studies as discussed in section 4.1.2.
In our assessment of the maximum amount of recyclable animal
C- manure, we used an average humification coefficient of 50%,
being the percentage that is not decomposed within one year. In
literature, this value varies mostly between 0.30 and 0.75 (Veeken
et al., 2017), depending on animal and manure type, feeding strat
-
egy, and pre- processing techniques applied (Berti et al., 2016;
Zavattaro et al., 2017). By choosing a humification coefficient, our
estimation of the maximum possible C increase (used as cut- off
value) is rather optimistic, as it refers to the percentage that is not
decomposed within one year and using this value only holds when
annual C inputs will remain equal in coming decades. When this is
not the case, the C- retention coefficient will be lower as shown by
Maillard and Angers (2014) who derived a C- retention coefficient of
12% for animal manure over 18 years of continued manure applica
-
tion. Poulton et al. (2018) found an increase of 0.7– 1.0 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
in the first 20 years in the Hoosfield barley and Broadbalk wheat
experiment at Rothamsted at an annual manure application near 3.2
t organic C ha
−1
yr
−1
, implying a C retention coefficient near 25% in
this period. However, after 80– 100 years, the average increase in
both experiments was 0.16 t C ha
−1
yr
−1
, which is only 5% of the C
input. In summary, even the corrected amount of C sequestration
by enhanced manure application of 30 Mton C yr
−1
, being 20 times
lower than the uncorrected amount application of 592 Mton C yr
−1
(see Table 3) is a maximum estimate and might be twice as low when
manuring is not continued.
For future work, the accuracy of our estimate on the maxi
-
mum C sequestration potential from manure could be improved
by accounting for variations in manure types and related humifi
-
cation coefficients (Veeken et al., 2017). For this, meta- analytical
data which evaluate the effects of solid and liquid manure on SOC
stock changes would be required which was missing in our case,
e.g. Maillard and Angers (2014) could not evaluate the effects of
solid and liquid manure on SOC stock changes due to limited field
data. However, since the manure excess is rather limited (most of
the manure is already recycled, Zhang et al. (2017), its impact on
global C sequestration potentials per climate- country region is as
-
sumed to be rather small.
5
|
CONCLUSION
Based on our integrative analysis of global meta- studies on soil
organic carbon (SOC), we found that the overall impacts of im
-
proved cropland management range on an average from 0.2 to 0.6
|
13
LESSMANN
Et
AL
.
t C ha
−1
yr
−1
over a timeframe of 20 years. The estimated global
scale SOC sequestration potential is on average near 0.56 Gt C
yr
−1
(assuming maximum synergy among measures taken) being
on the lower end of the previously estimated range of 0.1– 2 Gt C
yr
−1
. While the increased use of organic or combined fertilizers in
site applications showed (much) higher impacts on SOC changes
than soil (tillage) and crop management, the global scale poten
-
tial is (much) lower than no or reduced tillage and increased crop
diversity due to the fact that the availability of organic fertilizer
(manure) is limited. In fact, the actual potential to increase SOC by
increased manure application to arable land was only about 5% of
the potential amount that is estimated by simply upscaling results
from meta- analytical studies. This illustrates the need for proper
upscaling procedures (i.e., by combining spatial allocation proce
-
dures with high- resolution soil property maps and remote sensing
data) and the fact that many global scale quantifications are likely
overestimations.
Global variation in potential C sequestration varies not only with
climate and cropping systems but also with the current management
practices being applied. High potential for improved fertilization, as
well manure application, occurs in the southern part of the hemi
-
sphere, whereas reduced tillage practices can be applied in almost all
intensive agricultural systems. Crop diversification is another gen
-
eral guideline that is broadly applicable.
The impact of different climate zones on management and SOC
changes remains difficult to assess. It is likely that the differences
in SOC found here are the result of a combination of factors that
differ per management and climate zone. For instance, reduced till
in sub- tropical climates can have more pronounced positive im
-
pacts on SOC due to (a) lower initial SOC stocks, (b) increased crop
yields leading to higher crop C inputs, and (c) less SOC mineral
-
ization. We, therefore, recommend making a distinction between
climate and management when estimating global carbon seques
-
tration potentials.
6
|
MATERIALS AND CORRESPONDENCE
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to
Lessmann.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Lessmann and Ros: Collection and analysis of data. Ros, De Vries:
Derivation of upscaling procedure. Lessmann, Ros, Young, De Vries:
Drafting and critical revision of manuscript. Lessmann, Ros, Young, De
Vries: Approval of published version and accountability of the work.
COMPETING INTERESTS
The authors declare no competing interests.
DATA AVAIL ABILIT Y STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available in
https://github.com/AgroC ares/globa lcarb onpot ential
ORCID
Malte Lessmann
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5945-9874
Gerard H. Ros
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6062-9770
Madaline D. Young
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3012-1738
Wim de Vries
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9974-0612
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional supporting information may be found in the online ver
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sion of the article at the publisher’s website.
How to cite this article:
Lessmann, M., Ros, G. H., Young, M.
D., & de Vries, W. (2021). Global variation in soil carbon
sequestration potential through improved cropland
management.
Global Change Biology
, 00, 1– 16.