land degradation & development
Land Degrad. Develop.
17
: 197–209 (2006)
Published online 3 August 2005 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).
DOI
: 10.1002/ldr.696
ENHANCING CROP YIELDS IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
THROUGH RESTORATION OF THE SOIL ORGANIC CARBON POOL
IN AGRICULTURAL LANDS
R. LAL*
Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Received 8 November 2004;
Revised 23 March 2005;
Accepted 26 April 2005
ABSTRACT
Food production in developing countries, estimated at 1223 million metric tons (Mg), must be increased by 778 million Mg or
2
5 per cent y
1
between 2000 and 2025 to meet the needs of an increased population and projected change in diet. Among
numerous options, the one based on enhancing soil quality and agronomic productivity per unit area through improvement
in soil organic carbon pool has numerous ancillary benefits. The available data show that crop yields can be increased by
20–70 kg ha
1
for wheat, 10–50 kg ha
1
for rice, and 30–300 kg ha
1
for maize with every 1 Mg ha
1
increase in soil organic
carbon pool in the root zone. Adoption of recommended management practices on agricultural lands and degraded soils would
enhance soil quality including the available water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity, soil aggregation, and
susceptibility to crusting and erosion. Increase in soil organic carbon pool by 1 Mg ha
1
y
1
can increase food grain production
by 32 million Mg y
1
in developing countries. While advancing food security, this strategy would also off-set fossil
fuel emissions at the rate of 0
5 Pg C y
1
through carbons sequestration in agricultural soils of developing countries.
Copyright
#
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
key words
:
soil quality; global food security; developing countries; climate change; soil carbon sequestration
INTRODUCTION
World hunger is an overarching issue and will remain a major concern during most of the 21st century. Global hot
spots of hunger include sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia (Rhodes, 1995; Somerville and Briscoe, 2001;
Sanchez, 2002; Rosegrant and Cline, 2003; Conway and Toenniessen, 2003). Wild (2003) estimated that the
annual food production of 1223 million Mg (1 Mg
¼
10 g
6
¼
1000 Kg
¼
1 metric ton) in developing countries must
be increased at the rate of 2
5 per cent y
1
by an additional 778 million Mg to meet the food demands and projected
change in diet. This increase will have to come from increases in productivity of the existing land through
restoration of degraded soils and improvement in soil quality. On the contrary, the rate of increase in crop yields is
projected to decrease, especially in developing countries where natural resources are already under great stress,
because of soil degradation that may be exacerbated by the projected climate change, (Broad and Agrawala, 2000;
Kaiser, 2000) and which may reduce yield of rice in Asia because of higher night temperatures from global
warming (Peng
et al.
, 2004). The projected global warming may also limit the agricultural yield in the USA
(Lobell and Asner, 2003), which can adversely affect emergency grain supplies to regions with food deficit. Yet,
high and sustainable yield increase will have to be achieved (Fischer
et al.
, 2000), just to maintain a status quo in
Copyright
#
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Correspondence to: R. Lal, Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
E-mail: lal.160@su.edu
per capita food availability (Wild, 2003). Decline in agronomic productivity of soils in developing countries is
partly attributed to human-induced soil degradation and the attendant decline in soil quality (Lal, 2004). There is a
strong link between soil quality and agronomic productivity on the one hand, and soil organic carbon (SOC) and
soil quality on the other. Extractive practices widely used by resource-poor farmers in developing countries deplete
the SOC pool, degrade soil quality and adversely affect agronomic productivity. Thus, agricultural sustainability is
contingent upon land use and management systems that enhance and maintain high levels of SOC pool. This
manuscript collates and synthesizes existing information linking the SOC pool and the agronomic yields of
important food crops in developing countries. The focus is on soils of the tropics and subtropics, where the SOC
pool has been the most severely depleted. In these areas, crop yields are low, and productivity must be increased to
meet the food demands of the growing population. The hypothesis is that improvement in soil quality through
increase in the SOC pool can achieve the desired rate of increase in crop yield to ensure food security by 2025.
SOIL ORGANIC CARBON POOL AND SOIL QUALITY
Soil carbon (C) pool, estimated at 2500 Pg (Pg
¼
petagram
¼
1
10
15
g
¼
1 billion tons) to 1 m depth comprising
both soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC) (Batjes, 1996; Eswaran
et al.
, 2000), is an
important component of the global C cycle. World soils have lost 55 to 90 Pg of C because of conversion from
natural to agricultural ecosystems, tillage, and soil degradation caused by erosion and other processes (IPCC,
2001; Lal, 2004). Some estimates of SOC loss since the advent of agriculture 10 000 years ago vary from 55 Pg
(IPCC, 2001), via 243 Pg (Rozanov
et al.
, 1990) to 320 Pg (Ruddiman, 2003). In addition to degrading quality of
soil and water resources, most SOC lost from agricultural soils and degraded ecosystems is emitted into the
atmosphere as CO
2
or CH
4
. Thus, restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems and adoption of recommended
management practices (RMPs) is considered a viable option to reducing the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO
2
by 0
4 to 1
2 Pg C y
1
(5 to 15 per cent of the fossil fuel emissions in 2000) for the next 20 to 50 years (Lal, 2004).
While reducing the risk of climate change by enrichment of atmospheric CO
2
concentration, the SOC
sequestration has numerous ancillary benefits, which must also be objectively addressed while implementing
any regional or global policies towards sustainable management of soil resources. Important among these is the
strong positive effect of SOC pool on soil quality, agronomic/biomass productivity, and advancing global food
security.
The SOC pool comprises two predominant components: (1) the inert or recalcitrant component, which is not
involved in the mineralization process and depends on the soil type, climate, land-use history and the landscape
position; and (2) the labile or the active fraction, which depends on the management. The change in the SOC pool
because of changes in land use and management is mostly because of changes in the labile fraction. There also
exists a strong link between the concentration of the labile fraction of the SOC and soil quality, especially so in
impoverished soils of the tropics and subtropics, which have lost 60 to 80 per cent of their SOC pool due to
extractive practices of subsistence farming. Some cultivated soils in Kenya have lost their SOC stock by 50 to
75 Mg C ha
1
within 30 years of cultivation (Moshi
et al.
, 1974; Van Wissen, 1974; Tiffen
et al.
, 1994; Cole
et al.
,
1993; Swift
et al.
, 1994). In Senegal, Siband (1974) reported that SOC concentration of the surface 0–10 cm layer
decreased from 28 g kg
1
to 10 g kg
1
following 90 years of cultivation, with severe adverse effects on soil quality
and ability to resist drought.
Increasing the SOC pool of degraded soils would increase crop yields by influencing three mechanisms:
(1) increasing available water capacity; (2) improving supply of nutrients; and (3) enhancing soil structure and
other physical properties (Figure 1). There exists a strong relationship between the SOC pool and the plant
available water capacity (AWC) and the ability of soils to withstand drought (Hudson, 1994; Emerson, 1995;
Gupta and Larson, 1979; Hollis
et al.
, 1977; Salter and Williams, 1969; Salter and Haworth, 1961). In general, the
soil available moisture content increases by 1 to 10 g for every 1 g increase in soil organic matter (SOM) content
(Emerson, 1995). The increase may be small, but it may suffice to help maintain crop growth between periods of
rainfall of 5 to 10 days. For some soils, however, several researchers have also reported either no or slight effect of
SOC on AWC (Bauer and Black, 1992; Haynes and Naidu, 1998; Thomasson and Carter, 1989).
198
R. LAL
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2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
LAND DEGRADATION & DEVELOPMENT,
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Reversing degradation and desertification through enhancement and preservation of SOC would enhance cation
exchange capacity (CEC), improve biotic activity of micro-organisms and improve the supply of nutrients. Soil
biota are ecosystem engineers, and their importance to ecosystem restoration cannot be overemphasized (Lavelle
et al.
, 1997). The SOC pool is the driving force for biological activity, and it is the primary source of energy and
nutrients for soil biota (Powlson
et al.
, 2001). Soils with improved quality respond more to fertilizers and other
input than those depleted of their SOC pool. Increase in the SOC pool also increases CEC (Johnston, 1986).
Decline in 1 g kg
1
of SOC decreased effective CEC by 4
3 mmol kg
1
in soils of low activity clays (e.g., the West
African Sahel) reducing the ability of the soil to retain nutrients (DeRidder and VanKeulen, 1990; Bationo and
Mokwunye, 1991). There exists a significant positive correlation of the SOC pool with exchangeable bases and
extractable K in red Ferrosols of Tasmania, Australia (Cotching
et al.
, 2002). Therefore, an increase in SOC
concentration would produce the same level of crop yield with a reduced level of fertilizers (Vallis
et al.
, 1996;
Aggarwal
et al.
, 1997) because of an increase in fertilizer-use efficiency and a decrease in nitrate leaching (Vallis
et al.
,
1996). Increases in the SOC pool also enhance soil structure and aggregation (Tisdall and Oates, 1982; Stengel
et al.
,
1984; Haynes and Swift, 1990; Feller and Beare, 1997; Haynes and Naidu, 1998; Gardner
et al.
, 1992; Hamblin and
Davies, 1997; Karlen
et al.
, 1994), making soils less prone to crusting and compaction (Diaz-Zorita and Grosso, 2000)
and soil erosion (Schertz
et al.
, 1994; Benito and Diaz-Fierros, 1992).
Experiments in Canada showed that a decrease in SOC by 1 Mg ha
1
in the 0 to 7
5 cm layer decreased wheat
yield by 39 kg ha
1
in Lethbridge and 19 kg ha
1
at Hill Spring location (Larney
et al.
, 2000). In comparison,
wheat grain yield declined by 26
5 kg ha
1
for each 1 Mg ha
1
loss in the SOC pool at 0–50 cm depth in North
Figure 1. Improvement in soil quality by increasing the soil organic carbon content.
ENHANCING CROP YIELDS BY RESTORING SOC POOL
199
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: 197–209 (2006)
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Dakota, USA (Bauer and Black, 1994). Experiments in Russia showed that an increase in the humus content of soil
by 1 per cent resulted in a corresponding increase in yield of cereal by 1 Mg ha
1
(Ganzhara, 1998), which is
equivalent to 42 kg ha
1
y
1
of SOC for a plow depth of 20 cm and a mean soil bulk density of 1
2 Mg m
3
. At
Rothamsted, UK, Johnston (1991) reported that the yield of wheat and other crops increased with an increase in
humus content from 0
7 to 0
9 per cent. For a Podzolic loamy-sand soil in Russia, Zhukov
et al.
(1993) reported
that the yields of wheat and barley (
Hordeum vulgare
) increased with an increase in soil humus content. The yield
of wheat (Mg ha
1
) and the corresponding humus content (%), respectively, were 3
86 and 0
7, 3
92 and 1
5, 4
20
and 2
4 and 4
15 and 3
0. Thus, the rate of increase in yield was 13 kg ha
1
for every 1 Mg increase in the SOC pool
at 0–20 cm depth.
SOIL ORGANIC CARBON AND CROP YIELDS
Productivity gains with an increase in the SOC pool are large, especially when combined with judicious input of
fertilizers, irrigation and other amendments. Increases in SOC concentration enhance crop productivity in soils
with a clay content lower than 20 per cent, and in soils of sandy-loam and loamy-sand texture. In most soils, the
relation between SOC content and crop yield is linear up to a limit (2
0 per cent of SOC) beyond which it levels off
(Janzen
et al.
, 1992; Olson and Janzen, 1992). In some soils, an increase in crop yield due to an increase in the SOC
pool is primarily related to an increase in the labile fraction, which may have a narrow ecological optimum, 0
2 to
0
6 per cent for central Germany (Ko¨rschens, 1997). The critical limit of total SOC content, below which crop
yield declines by about 20 per cent is 1
1 per cent for most soils of the tropics (Aune and Lal, 1997), and
2
0 per cent for soils of the temperate regions (Kemper and Koch, 1966; Greenland
et al.
, 1975; Loveland
and Webb, 2003). In unfertilized soils, in which breakdown of soil organic matter is necessary to supply nutrients
and maintain yields, there may be a critical level of SOC below which insufficient nutrients are mineralized to
sustain satisfactory yields (Grace
et al.
, 1995).
Latin America
Numerous experiments conducted in Latin America have documented that enhancing and maintaining a high level
of SOC pool is important to sustaining productivity of soils. In Argentina Pampas, Diaz-Zorita
et al.
(1999)
observed that wheat (
Triticum aestivum
) yields were linearly related to a SOC concentration lower than
17
5 g kg
1
. Losses of 1 Mg of SOM decreased wheat yield by about 40 kg ha
1
. Therefore, use of no-till soil
management and incorporation of pastures in the rotation cycle are recommended for sustainable use of the soils of
the Pampas (Diaz-Zorita
et al.
, 2002).
There are several land-use and management practices that can enhance the SOC pool in soils of Latin America.
Growing deep-rooted grasses with a high Net Primary Productivity (NPP) (Fisher
et al.
, 1994), improved pastures
(Neill
et al.
, 1997), conversion from plow-till to conservation tillage (Bayer
et al.
, 2000, 2001; Sa
et al.
, 2001), and
afforestation with fast-growing tree species (Zinn
et al.
, 2002; Smith
et al.
, 2002), all enhance SOC concentrations
in the soils of Latin America. Beneficial effects of conversion from plow-till to conservation-till have been widely
documented in the Pampas (Buschiazzo
et al.
, 1998; Alvarez and Lavado, 1998; Diaz-Zorita and Grosso, 2000).
South Asia
Several experiments have demonstrated the positive impact of residue retention on SOC concentration and
increase in crop yield in South Asia. In Rajsthan, India, Aggarwal
et al
. (1997) reported that retention of crop
residues and manure increased soil moisture content, enhanced SOC concentration and improved the yield of pearl
millet (
Pennisetum typhoides
) by 0
1 to 0
2 Mg ha
1
. Also in India, a strong increase in crop yield with increase in
SOC concentration was reported for mustard (
Brassica juncea
) by Shankar
et al.
(2002); and wheat, mustard,
sunflower (
Helianthus annuus
) and groundnut (
Arachis hypogaea
) by Ghosh
et al.
(2003). Seed grain yield of
mustard increased at the rate of 360 kg ha
1
for each 1 Mg increase in the SOC pool in the surface 15 cm layer
within the SOC range of 6 to 12 Mg C ha
1
(Shankar
et al.
, 2002). Decreases in SOC pools in agricultural soils is
reportedly more in unfertilized compared to fertilized soils, and there is a gradual build up in the SOC pool in those
200
R. LAL
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2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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: 197–209 (2006)
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soils receiving recommended rates of fertilizers (Ghosh
et al.
, 2003), especially when combined with manure
application (Yadav
et al.
, 2000; Reddy
et al.
2000; Kanchikerimath and Singh, 2001). For Vertisols in central
India, integrated soil management (e.g., conservation tillage for erosion control, water harvesting, soil-fertility
management, and legume-based rotations), increased grain yield from 1 Mg ha
1
y
1
under traditional systems to
4
7 Mg ha
1
with an attendant increase in the SOC pool and improvement in soil quality (Wani
et al.
, 2003). The
rate of growth in productivity between 1977 and 2002 was 77 kg ha
1
y
1
under the improved system
vis-a`-vis
26 kg ha
1
y
1
under the traditional systems. The long-term sustainability of rice (
Oryza sativa
)-wheat systems of
South Asia, the basis of the Green Revolution of the 1970s, which averted mass starvation in the region, depends
on the SOC pool of these intensively managed soils. Grace
et al.
(2003) observed that a decline in yield of the rice–
wheat system was also associated with an attendant decline in the SOC pool at the rate of 200 to 624 kg ha
1
y
1
.
Experiments on maize in Thailand showed that grain yield increased by 2
9 Mg ha
1
for each 1 per cent increase in
SOM content (Petchawee and Chaitep, 1995). Sustainable use of structurally weak Vertisols in Australia
also strongly depends on the SOC pool (Dalal
et al.
, 1995; Cotching
et al.
, 2002). In Tasmania, Australia,
Cotching
et al.
(2002) reported a significant correlation between the SOC pool and yields of spring vegetables.
Africa
Experiments conducted in tropical Africa have also produced encouraging results with regards to the positive
impact of SOC on crop yields and agronomic productivity. In Niger, Bationo and Ntare (2000) observed that
legume–millet rotation with 30 kg N ha
1
maintained a high level in the SOC pool and sustained crop yields.
Across several sites in West Africa, Becker and Johnson (2001) observed that a reduction in yield of upland rice on
continuously cultivated soils was also associated with a decline in the SOC concentration. Decline in rice yield
(Mg ha
1
) in relation to reduction in SOC concentration (%), respectively, was 0
19 and 0
47 in the Guinea
Savanna zone, 0
33 and 0
21 in the derived savanna zone, 0
53 and 0
11 in the bimodal forest zone, and 0
40 and
0
26 for the monomodal forest zone. Decline in the SOC concentration by 19 per cent across sites resulted in a
26 per cent yield decline (Becker and Johnson, 2001). In the West African Sahel, Yamoah
et al.
(2002) reported
that a combination of crop residues and fertilizer produced the highest millet grain and straw yields, water and
fertilizer use efficiencies, and SOC concentration. Similar observations for the Sahel were made by Subbarao
et al.
(2000), Andreas
et al.
(2000), and Rebafka
et al.
(1994). A long-term experiment conducted on a Kikuyu red clay
in Kenya showed that total crop yield of maize and beans (
Phaseolus vulgare
) ranged from 1
4 Mg ha
1
y
1
when
residue was removed and without external input to 6
0 Mg ha
1
y
1
when straw was retained and fertilizers and
manure (120 kg N, 52 kg P and 10 Mg ha
1
manure y
1
) were applied. The SOC pool to 15 cm depth ranged
between 23
6 Mg ha
1
for straw removal to 28
7 Mg ha
1
with manuring and residue retention. Every Mg of
C ha
1
conserved in soil through adoption of RMPs increased grain yield by 243 kg ha
1
for maize and 50 kg ha
1
for beans (Kapkiyai
et al.
, 1999). In Western Nigeria, Lal (1981) observed that grain yield increased linearly with
increase in the SOC content at the rate of 2
9 Mg ha
1
for maize and 0
23 Mg ha
1
for cowpea (
Vigna unguiculata
)
for each 1 per cent increase in SOC concentration in the 0–10 cm layer. In the West African humid forest and
savanna zones, Larbi
et al.
(2002) observed that average grain yield increased positively with the increasing
amount of crop residues applied as mulch due to the corresponding increase in SOC, total N and available P
concentrations. Several experiments throughout tropical Africa, North Africa and West Africa have shown that
SOC concentration can be increased by conversion from plow-till to conservation-till (Lal, 1976; Mrabet, 2002;
Jenkinson
et al.
, 1999), manuring and soil fertility management (Pieri, 1992; Vlek, 1993), afforestation and
agroforestry measures (Breman and Kessler, 1997; Guillaume
et al.
, 1999), and crop residue retention as mulch
(Lal, 1998; Adeoye, 1990; Mbagwu, 1991).
POTENTIAL OF INCREASING CROP YIELDS THROUGH ENHANCING
THE SOIL ORGANIC CARBON POOL
The increase in crop yield with increase in SOC can be substantial especially in impoverished soils that are
severely depleted of their SOC pool. On the contrary, decline in the SOC concentration is not always associated
ENHANCING CROP YIELDS BY RESTORING SOC POOL
201
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with a decrease in crop yields (Beyer
et al.
, 1999). In some cases, crop yield may increase despite a notable decline
in SOC concentration (Hairiah
et al.
, 2000), because of other managerial inputs whose efficiency may increase in
soils with low SOC, N and other nutrients (Ganzhara, 1998). In others, an increase in SOC may not increase the
crop yield as has been reported for the rice–wheat system of South Asia (Duxbury, 2001).
Increases in crop yield with increase in the SOC concentration in the root zone through adoption of RMPs in
developing countries is impressive (Table I). There are three possible scenarios relating crop yield or agronomic
productivity to SOC pool: (1) increase in crop yield with increase in the SOC pool; (2) no or little decrease in crop
yield with reduction in the SOC pool, and (3) increase in crop yield with decrease in the SOC pool. These
apparently conflicting responses depend on soil texture (clay content), antecedent SOC pool, severity of
degradation, land use, and management with regards to the use of fertilizer and irrigation. Empirical data relating
crop yields to the SOC pool are scanty, especially for depleted and degraded soils of the developing countries.
Meager data, summarized in Table I, show that every 1 Mg ha
1
increase in the SOC pool can increase crop
yield by 20–70 kg ha
1
for wheat, 10–50 kg ha
1
for rice, 30–300 kg ha
1
for maize, 20–30 kg ha
1
for cowpea,
and 40–60 kg ha
1
for beans. There exists a strong need to improve the data base for principal crops and
predominant soil types through well designed and properly implemented long-term experiments.
Scaling up from the plot scale data to regional/global scale over a 25-year period requires an understanding of
the functional relationship between the SOC pool and crop yield at a given point in time, and of the temporal
changes in such relationships over the 25-year period. Experimental data describing such functional relationships
are not available, especially for degraded soils of the tropics and subtropics. The relationship between SOC
concentration and crop yield, in addition to being soil and crop specific, may be sigmoidal, linear or exponential.
The extrapolation of the plot data in Table I to the global scale presented in Table II is based on several
assumptions: (1) yields of all crops increase linearly with increase in SOC concentration over the 2-year period; (2)
adoption of RMPs may enhance the SOC pool either by 0
5 Mg ha
1
y
1
or by 1 Mg ha
1
y
1
, corresponding to an
increase in SOC concentration at 20 cm depth by 0
02 per cent y
1
and 0
04 per cent y
1
, respectively; (3) the rate
of increase in the SOC pool can be sustained for 50 years with a cumulative increase in SOC concentration by
1 per cent or 2 per cent in 50 years; and (4) such an increase would be independent of any increase in crop yield by
other managerial input.
The global increase in crop yields are computed assuming that every 1 Mg ha
1
increase in the SOC pool would
increase crop yield by 20–70 kg ha
1
y
1
in wheat, 30–300 kg ha
1
y
1
in maize, 10–50 kg ha
1
y
1
in rice,
50–60 kg ha
1
y
1
in millet, 20–30 kg ha
1
y
1
in soybean, 20–25 kg ha
1
y
1
in beans and 5–10 kg ha
1
y
1
in cowpeas (Table II). Restoration of the SOC pool may lead to a total increase in food-grain production in
the tropics and sub-tropics by (16
6)
10
6
Mg y
1
for a 0
5 Mg C ha
1
increase in the SOC pool and
(32
11)
10
6
Mg y
1
for a 1 Mg C ha
1
increase in the SOC pool (Table II). Increases in food-grain production
attributed to increases in the SOC pool can be (2
3
0
8)
10
6
Mg y
1
in Africa, (4
2
1
2)
10
6
Mg y
1
in
Table I. Soil organic carbon impacts on crop yields in the tropics and subtropics
Country
Crop
Soil/region
Yield increase
Reference
(Kg ha
1
y
1
Mg
1
of SOC)
Kenya
Maize
Kikuyu red clay
243
Kapkiyai
et al.
(1999)
Kenya
Beans
Kikuyu red clay
50
Kapkiyai
et al.
(1999)
Nigeria
Maize
Egbeda/Alfisol
254
Lal (1976)
Nigeria
Cowpea
Egbeda/Alfisol
20
Lal (1976)
Argentina
Wheat
Haplundolls/Haplustoll
64
Diaz-Zorita
et al.
(1999)
Thailand
Maize
Northeastern
408
Petchawee and Chaitep (1995)
India
Mustard
Inceptisol/UP
360
Shankar
et al.
(2002)
India
Maize
Inceptisol/Haryana
210
Kanchikerimath and Singh (2001)
India
Wheat
Inceptisol/Haryana
38
Kanchikerimath and Singh (2001)
Sri Lanka
Rubber
Alfisol/Ultisol
66
Samarppuli
et al.
(1999)
202
R. LAL
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2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Latin America, and (9
3
3
5)
10
6
Mg y
1
in Asia for a 0
5 Mg C ha
1
y
1
increase in the SOC pool. The
corresponding increase in food production for 1 Mg C ha
1
y
1
increase in the SOC pool would be
(4
6
1
6)
10
6
Mg y
1
in Africa, (8
4
2
4)
10
6
Mg y
1
in Latin America and (18
6
7
1)
10
6
Mg y
1
for Asia. The actual increase may be soil and region specific and vary with a wide range of socio-economic and
biophysical factors, and may be much greater because of the synergistic effects of the overall improvement in soil
quality.
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE SOIL CARBON POOL
While the benefits of SOC sequestration in mitigating climate change are important to developed economies (Powell
and Hons, 1991; Powell and Unger, 1998; Rasmussen and Parton, 1994; Wilhelm
et al.
, 2004), improvements in
Table II. Potential of increase in food grains in the tropics and subtropics through improvement in soil quality by adopting
recommended management practices which enhance the SOC pool
Crop
Region
Area
Yield
Increase in SOC pool
Increase in SOC pool
(kg ha
1
)
by 0
5 Mg C ha
1
y
1
by 1 Mg C ha
1
y
1
Increase in yield
Productivity increase
Increase in yield Productivity increase
(kg ha
1
y
1
)
(10
6
Mg y
1
)
(kg ha
1
y
1
)
(10
6
Mg y
1
)
Wheat
Africa
8
9
1571
10–20
0
09–0
18
20–40
0
18–0
36
Latin America
9
0
2515
25–35
0
225–0
315
50–70
0
45–0
63
Asia
97
1
2535
15–25
1
455--2
43
30–50
2
91--4
86
1
77–2
925
3
54–5
85
Maize
Africa
26
6
1677
15–25
0
40–0
65
30–50
0
80–1
30
Latin America
22
6
3124
100–150
2
26–3
435
200–300
4
52–6
87
Asia
41
1
3566
50–150
2
05--4
11
100–300
4
11--8
22
4
71–8
195
9
43–16
39
Rice
Africa
7
8
2211
5–20
0
04–0
115
10–30
0
08–0
23
Latin America
6
5
3585
15–25
0
10–0
165
30–50
0
20–0
33
Asia
137
6
3964
15–25
2
06--3
425
30–50
4
13--6
85
2
20–3
72
4
41–7
44
Sorghum
Africa
21
6
862
40–60
0
86–1
295
80–120
1
73–2
59
Latin America
4
1
3163
50–70
0
20–0
285
100–140
0
41–0
57
Asia
12
5
1073
50–70
0
625--0
875
100–140
1
25--1
75
1
69–2
46
3
39–4
91
Millet
Africa
20
1
670
15–25
0
30–5
00
30–50
0
60–1
00
Latin America
0
2
1516
25–35
0
005–0
005
50–70
0
01–0
01
Asia
14
6
820
15–25
0
22--0
365
30–50
0
44--0
73
0
52–0
87
1
05–1
74
Beans (
Phaseolus
and
Vigna
spp.)
Africa
3
1
668
20–30
0
06–0
095
40–60
0
12–0
19
Latin America
8
0
743
20–30
0
16–0
24
40–60
0
32–0
48
Asia
14
7
640
15–25
0
22--0
37
30–50
0
44--0
74
0
44–0
70
0
88–1
41
Soybean
Africa
0
92
973
10–15
0
01–0
015
20–30
0
02–0
03
Latin America
24
0
2389
15–25
0
36–0
60
30–50
0
72–1
20
Asia
16
9
1398
10–15
0
17--0
25
20–30
0
34--0
51
0
54–0
87
1
08–1
74
Total
11
89–19
74
—
23
78–39
48
(15
8
5
6)
—
(31
6
11
1)
1 g ha y
1
increase in SOC equals 0
02 per cent increase in SOC pool at 20 cm depth per year in soil with a bulk density of 1
3 Mg m
3
. The
data on area and crop yield are from FAO (2000).
ENHANCING CROP YIELDS BY RESTORING SOC POOL
203
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agronomic yield and reduction in hunger and poverty are critical to degradation-prone developing countries. It is the
agronomic yield, not SOC sequestration, that is the goal of all farmers, especially resource-poor farmers who consider
SOC as a source of nutrients to be exploited in risk-prone environments. Subsistence farmers in the tropics are not
directly concerned about the depletion of SOC, but rather with the reduction in crop yields caused by SOC-induced
degradation in other soil properties (Sanchez, 2002). Not being a plant nutrient, SOC is not essential to plant growth
per se
, and the benefits derived from it are substitutable by external input, albeit to a certain limit. Yet, there is a close
relationship between increases in crop yield and increase in SOC (Reilly and Fuglie, 1998), especially through
increase in root biomass and residues returned to the soil. An important question is whether it is theoretically possible
to reverse downward trends in the SOC pool in agricultural soils of SSA and South Asia by adopting RMPs, thereby
increasing productivity and improving the environment.
Several experiments in the tropics have demonstrated that the SOC pool can be enhanced by a combination of
no-till farming, residue retention, manuring, N fertilization, incorporation of grass and legume in the rotation cycle
and use of agroforestry systems (Dalal
et al.
, 1991, 1995; Yadav, 1996; Pal, 2003; Rautaray
et al.
, 2003). Within a
specific management system (e.g., conservation tillage, mulching, manuring, agroforestry, etc.), the rate of SOC
increase depends on several interacting factors including the quantity and quality of residue retained, soil moisture
and temperature regimes, intensity and frequency of cropping systems, etc. Legume-based crop rotations (e.g.,
soybean–sunflower, cowpea–mustard–sunflower) and the use of compost and manure are preferred as viable
alternatives to the rice–wheat system in South Asia for increased productivity, and improvements in the SOC pool
and soil quality (Moore, 1994; Pal, 2003; Dwivedi
et al.
, 2003). However, the retention of crop residues and use of
compost, animal manure and other biosolids on agricultural soils can happen only if alternative sources for
competing uses of such materials (for fodder, fuel and construction, etc.) are identified and made available. Under
the prevailing socio-economic and policy environments, practices such as no-till, agroforestry, diversified/mixed
farming systems, precision farming and judicious use of these options do not meet the social and economic needs
that determine farmer behavior. Therefore, there is a need for a radical change in mindset at all levels of the
societal hierarchy. There must be a drastic paradigm shift so that soil resources are not taken for granted. It is
important that sustainable management of soil resources (through no-till farming, retention of crop residue as
mulch and use of manure and compost to enhance soil fertility) is an integral component of any government
program related to improving agricultural productivity, achieving food security, enhancing water quality and
mitigating climate change. The time for this important action is now.
There are two principal socio-economic and cultural traditions, throughout the developing world in the tropics
and subtropics, which are the driving forces responsible for depletion of the SOC pool and which lead to
degradation of soil, pollution of water, and emission of GHGs and particulate material in to the air. These are:
(1) the removal of crop residue for use as fodder for cattle; and (2) the use of animal dung as household dung for
cooking. Consequently, soil nutrient balance is negative, the SOC pool is depleted, soils are prone to crusting and
compaction because of a decline in soil structure, and are subject to severe erosion by wind and water due to bare,
unprotected surfaces and high erodibility (Figure 2). These degradative processes reduce agronomic/biomass
productivity, decrease response to inputs such as fertilizers and irrigation, and require additional labor (plowing) to
prepare a desirable seedbed/tilth. In addition to reduced production, there are serious problems of soil degradation,
water pollution, and decline in air quality.
Lack of a suitable fuel for household cooking is another social factor driving the complex process of soil and
environmental degradation. Rather than using it as a soil amendment, animal dung is used as a cooking fuel in
developing countries of Asia and Africa. In addition to being a serious health hazard to young mothers and the
children with them, not returning the dung to the soil disrupts the nutrient cycling, accelerates the depletion of
SOM and plant nutrients, reduces agronomic/biomass productivity and jeopardizes sustainability of the specific
land-use system.
Such extractive systems were sustainable practices for millennia in ancient countries such as India, and were
ecologically compatible as long as the population was low, the land:people ratio was high, and the demands on natural
resources were low. With high demographic pressures, a low land:population ratio and high demands for natural
resources that have been severely stressed, these extractive practices are causing severe environmental degradation.
204
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#
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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17
: 197–209 (2006)
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The reversal of this degradation process requires a paradigm shift in traditional systems of using natural
resources. Livestock management, an important component of any agrarian society, must be based on viable
forage-based rotations and sound pastoral systems. Cattle cannot be raised on crop residues and uncontrolled
grazing without jeopardizing natural resources, which are already under great stress, and without making common
village land prone to the ‘tragedy of the commons’. The system of removing residues from cropland to feed cattle
must be stopped. Similarly, development/identification of clean sources of household fuel is essential to reducing
risks to the health of women and children, and making it possible to use dung/compost as a soil amendment.
Establishment of biofuel plantations (e.g.,
Prosopis
, (
mesquite
)
Jatropha
,
Leucaena
, etc.) on degraded/waste-
lands, village common land, etc., is an important strategy to restoring degraded soils and ecosystems, improving
the SOC pool, enhancing the environment and improving the standard of living.
Figure 2. Two important social and cultural factors responsible for soil and environmental degradation in developing countries.
ENHANCING CROP YIELDS BY RESTORING SOC POOL
205
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#
2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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: 197–209 (2006)
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CONCLUSION
Food-grain production in developing countries can be increased by 24–39 (32
11) million Mg y
1
through
improving soil quality by increasing the SOC pool and reversing degradation processes. This increase is about
2
5 per cent r
1
of the total annual cereal production of 1223 million Mg of grain in developing countries.
However, the synergistic effects of increase in yield due to enhanced fertilizer and water use efficiencies are likely
to be much greater. Mulch farming, retention of crop residues, use of manures and biosolids are essential to
enhancing and maintaining the SOC pool in the soils of the tropics. In addition to advancing food security, an
increase in the SOC pool at 1 Mg C ha
1
y
1
over 500 million hectares would lead to carbon sequestration of
0
5 Pg C y
1
with a strong impact on off-setting fossil fuel emissions. Achieving these goals, however, requires
identifying alternative sources for competing uses of crop residues (for fodder, fuel and construction, etc.). Under
the prevailing socio-economic and policy environments, practices such as no-till farming, agroforestry, diversified/
mixed farming systems, precision farming and judicious use of these options do not meet social and economic
needs that determine farmer behavior. Therefore, there is a need for a radical change in mindset at all levels of the
societal hierarchy. There must be a radical paradigm shift so that soil resources are not taken for granted. The
sustainable management of soil resource —through no-till farming, retention of crop residue as mulch and use of
manure and compost to enhance soil fertility—must be an integral component of any government program related
to improving agricultural productivity, achieving food security, enhancing water quality and mitigating climate
change. The time for this important action is now.
acknowledgement
Help received from Mr Y. Raut in the literature search is gratefully acknowledged.
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