Points of view
The soil carbon dilemma: Shall we hoard it or use it?
H.H. Janzen *
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, P.O. Box 3000, Lethbridge, Alta., Canada T1J 4B1
Available online 21 November 2005
Abstract
Rapidly rising concentrations of atmospheric CO
2
have prompted a flurry of studies on soils as potential carbon (C) ‘sinks’. Sequestering C in
soils is often seen as a ‘win–win’ proposition; it not only removes excess CO
2
from the air, but also improves soils by augmenting organic matter,
an energy and nutrient source for biota. But organic matter is most useful, biologically, when it decays. So we face a dilemma: can we both
conserve organic matter and profit from its decay? Or must we choose one or the other? In this essay, I contemplate the merits, first of building soil
C and then of decaying (losing) it, partly from a historical perspective. I then consider the apparent trade-off between accrual and decay, and reflect
on how the dilemma might be resolved or assuaged. These fledgling thoughts, offered mostly to stir more fruitful debate, include: finding ways to
increase C inputs to soil; seeking to optimize the timing of decay; and understanding better, from an ecosystem perspective, the flows of C, rather
than only the stocks. Carbon sequestration is a sound and worthy goal. But soil organic matter is far more than a potential tank for impounding
excess CO
2
; it is a relentless flow of C atoms, through a myriad of streams—some fast, some slow—wending their way through the ecosystem,
driving biotic processes along the way. Now, when we aim to regain some of the C lost, we may need new ways of thinking about soil C dynamics,
and tuning them for the services expected of our ecosystems. This objective, perhaps demanding more biology along with other disciplines, is
especially urgent when we contemplate the stresses soon to be imposed by coming global changes.
Crown Copyright
q
2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Carbon sequestration; Carbon sinks; Soil organic matter; Decomposition; Global change
1. Introduction
Some three decades ago,
mused
about building ‘carbon banks’ in the biosphere to control
atmospheric CO
2
. “[I]f ever the danger of catastrophe from
CO
2
accumulation becomes acute”, he said, we might plant
more trees or “build up carbon reserves in the form of humus”,
thereby withdrawing excess CO
2
from the air.
Since then, worries of impending dangers have indeed
escalated. Scientists are increasingly persuaded that swiftly-
rising CO
2
may one day induce unpleasant changes to global
climates (
), and governments have begun enacting
policies to curb CO
2
increases (
). In response
has come a flurry of studies and deliberations about building
biological carbon (C) banks. Soil-focused journals, confer-
ences, and symposia, in particular, have been deluged
with papers on C ‘sinks’, C ‘sequestration’, C ‘storage’,
C ‘stabilization’, and C-storing ‘capacity’. This welcome tide
of data is showing how we can manage soils to trap more C,
how much we might store, and for how long.
But in our new-found zeal for locking up C, do we overlook
a fundamental precept: that organic matter has most benefit,
biologically, when it decays? Decades ago,
wrote:
Attempting to hoard as much organic matter as possible in
the soil, like a miser hoarding gold, is not the correct
answer. Organic matter functions mainly as it is decayed
and destroyed. Its value lies in its dynamic nature.
Was there truth in his assertion? And does it still apply? In
this essay, I ponder whether we can, at the same time, both
sequester C and see the benefits of higher soil C. Can we both
conserve organic matter and profit from its decay? Or does
building soil C involve a biological cost, a temporary forfeiture
of dividend?
To address these questions, I ponder the merits, first of
building soil C and then of its decay (loss). I then examine the
apparent paradox that emerges, and proffer some tentative
thoughts for resolving it. Though these contemplations may
apply more broadly, I focus primarily on cultivated soils, the
ones most widely seen as intentional C sinks. And I seek a
partly historical perspective, trying to avoid preoccupation
Soil Biology & Biochemistry 38 (2006) 419–424
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2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.10.008
* Tel.:
C
1 403 317 2223; fax:
C
1 403 382 3156.
E-mail address:
janzen@agr.gc.ca
with present pressures and perhaps unearthing again some
insights now buried.
2. Soil organic matter as a C sink
Soil organic matter is the accumulated, decaying debris of
biota living on or in the soil. It is vastly heterogeneous,
encompassing everything from last hour’s root exudate to
persistent humified material, millennia old (
The largest of the active terrestrial C pools, soil organic matter
holds about 1500 Pg C to a depth of 1 m (
). Its amount in any place changes
over time, depending on photosynthetic C added and the rate of
its decay (
Paustian et al., 1998; Janzen, 2004
In recent centuries, stored C has often declined, at least in
cultivated soils. Arable agriculture typically depletes soil C
because: it returns less plant litter since a fraction of
photosynthetically-fixed C is harvested; it makes organic
matter more accessible to biological decay by disrupting
soil aggregates and mixing fresh litter into the soil; and it
intensifies erosion which displaces C-rich surface soil. In total,
cultivated soils have lost some 50 Pg C or more (
1998; Amundson, 2001; Lal, 2003, 2004a,b; Janzen, 2005
These past losses, now, present the opportunity for future sinks;
C sequestration, usually, means re-building past reserves, not
adding new ones (
Smith, 2004c; Wander and Nissen, 2004
How much of the lost C can be recovered? Measured rates of
soil C accrual, under improved management, are typically a
fraction of 1 Mg C ha
K
1
y
K
1
, much less (by definition) than net
primary productivity on croplands, which has a mean, world-
wide, of roughly 3 Mg C ha
K
1
y
K
1
). Globally, as much as 0.4–1.2 Pg C y
K
1
could be stored in agricultural lands (including restored
degraded soils), according to
. But such projected
values are tentative; we do not know exactly the rates of C
accrual under C-conserving practices, nor how widely the
practices will be adopted. Such global estimates may be best
seen as potential targets, subject to social and economic
constraints (
); some have even called them ‘wildly
positive’ (
). These debates aside, many
scientists agree that soil C sinks—indeed all biological
sinks—can only, at best, have modest effects on atmospheric
CO
2
at this century’s end (
Amundson, 2001; Royal Society,
2001; Scholes and Noble, 2001; Smith, 2004a,b,c
Then why the preoccupation with soil C sinks? There are at
least two reasons. First, soil C sequestration may be a ‘stop gap’
measure to help slow the rise of atmospheric CO
2
in coming
decades, as societies search for alternatives to burning fossil C.
Atmospheric CO
2
is now increasing at about 3 Pg C y
K
1
); even a fraction of a Pg C y
K
1
stored in soils could help
slow that increase (
Pacala and Socolow, 2004; Lal, 2004b
). And
secondly, building soil C is meritorious and good even aside
from any benefits to the atmosphere. Soil C sequestration is a
‘win–win’ option, a ‘no-regrets’ option, because a soil with
more organic C, we say, is a better soil, a more productive soil
(e.g.
). So we aim for increased soil C
also because it improves our soils (
and Nissen, 2004; Dumanski, 2004
But now we encounter a disquieting constraint—the benefits
of organic matter arise, not from its
accumulation
, but from its
decay
.
CO
2
CO
2
CO
2
CO
2
harvest
photo-
sy nthesis
plan t resp irat io n
litter
fall
deca y
SOC pools
CO
2
CO
2
CO
2
CO
2
harvest
photo-
synthesis
plant respiration
litter
fall
decay
SOC pools
Fig. 1. Illustration of the main stores and flows of C in a cropland, showing three pools of soil C for simplicity, though recognizing that soil C spans a continuum of
forms.
H.H. Janzen / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 38 (2006) 419–424
420
3. Soil organic matter as substrate (fuel)
Early in the previous century, scientists studying organic
matter focused on its dynamic nature; they saw organic matter
as a stream of C and other atoms gradually flowing back to CO
2
and other elementary constituents.
wrote: “Humus is not in a static, but rather in a dynamic,
condition, since it is constantly formed from plant and animal
residues and is continuously decomposed further by microor-
ganisms.” And
agreed: “Humus in the natural
state is dynamic, not static.”
From this vantage, organic matter is fuel for soil’s biological
machinery (
); in
words it is “fuel for bacterial fires in the soil, which
operates as a factory producing plant nutrients”. It is in decay
that organic matter becomes most useful. “The old agricultural
investigators
.
”, wrote
, “knew that
organic matter must suffer decay or decomposition before it
served its proper purpose in the soil: in the language of the
eighteenth century, ‘Corruption’ (using the word in its original
significance) ‘is the mother of vegetation’ ”. Lipman has been
quoted to say: “
.
humus as such is of no use to plants, it
becomes valuable only in so far as it is resolved into the simple
compounds carbon dioxide, nitric acid and various mineral
salts.” (
).
The cited views of Lipman and others, admittedly, may be a
little narrow. Soil organic matter is more than “fuel”; it has
persistent benefits also through physical effects (soil structure,
moisture retention) and chemical effects (ion exchange,
buffering) (
). But even here,
ongoing decay may be helpful or even necessary. For example,
soil organic matter helps maintain structure partly through
continual turnover (
). So from a biological
standpoint, at least, the benefits of organic matter depend on
decay. The words of
may still apply: “It is the
decay of organic matter, and not the mere presence of it, that
gives ‘life’ to the soil”. (Or as
quotes
him: “It is not the presence of organic matter which is most
important but the decay of organic matter”.)
Implicitly, we still acknowledge the importance of decay as a
measure of soil performance, as reflected in the wide use of soil
respiration as an indicator of soil ‘quality’ or ‘health’ (
). In effect,
we are saying: the more the decay, the ‘better’ is the soil; the
more active the soil biota, the richer the biological rewards.
But here, now, is the apparent paradox: to build organic C,
we may need to stifle respiration (suppress microbial activity).
With fixed input of C, we cannot increase soil C reserves
without suppressing respiration (decay). And if we constrain
microbial activity, are we also squelching the many ecosystem
functions delivered by the soil’s teeming hordes?
4. The dilemma
In advocating soil C sequestration, we may be chasing two
contradictory aims: storage of organic matter, and also its
decay. (Sometimes we even include the two together, in lists of
soil quality indices, using both soil C and respiration rate as
indicators (
.)). We imply that the two
are correlated; that when we increase organic matter we also
increase nutrient release and biological activity. For example, a
superb recent paper concluded that “No tillage and increased
cropping intensity improved soil fertility by increasing soil
organic matter and potential nutrient supply to crops.” (
). No doubt similar inferences appear in many
papers, mine perhaps among them. But the reason that no-till
increases soil organic C (absent differences in erosion or
residue inputs) is because it inhibits microbial activity, it slows
decomposition (e.g.
), and
presumably also nutrient release.
We say we want to store more organic C; we say that will
make the atmosphere cooler and the soil better. But organic
matter is most beneficial, biologically, as it dissipates by
microbial activity. With constant C inputs, we cannot both
increase soil C and increase microbial activity (
). If we
want higher microbial activity, we have to sacrifice soil organic
C; if we want to store more C, we must quash microbial
activity. So for any patch of land and span of time, we have to
choose one—higher soil C or higher respiration (or a
compromise between them).
Table 1
An illustration of the relationships between change in stored soil C and nutrient
mineralization, microbial activity, and population size of active microbes
Scenario 1
(Losing C)
Scenario 2
(Steady state)
Scenario 3
(Gaining C)
Relative rate or size
Change in stored C
K
0
C
Nutrient mineralization
C
*
0
K
Respiration (microbial
activity)
†††
**
††
†
Active microbial
population (and perhaps
biodiversity?)
†††
**
††
†
*‘
C
’ denotes nutrient mineralization
O
nutrient input in litter; ‘
K
’ denotes
nutrient mineralization
!
nutrient input in litter; **The more bullet points, the
faster the rate or larger the population.
Fig. 2. Illustration of hypothetical hydroelectric plant. If rate of water inflow
(
W
in
) is fixed, then opening valve B temporarily increases power generation,
but at the expense of water storage. As pressure diminishes, rate of outflow
(
W
out
) also declines until
W
out
Z
W
in
. The amount of water stored can be
increased by partially closing valve B, but at the temporary expense of power
generation.
H.H. Janzen / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 38 (2006) 419–424
421
Consider a simple analogy: a hydro-electric plant, driven
by water from a small reservoir (
). The amount of water
in the reservoir is controlled by two things: the rate of water
entering from the inlet, and the rate of water flowing past
the turbines and escaping from the reservoir. If the rate of
inflow is fixed, the manager controls the level of water in the
reservoir by adjusting outflow: open the valve more and the
rate of water outflow (and power generation) increases
(
). But only temporarily—as the water storage is
depleted, and head diminishes, the rate of outflow again
declines approaching that of the inflow, but now with lower
water storage. Restrict the outflow again, and the water level
will increase until the increasing pressure eventually results in
outflows as high as the inflow, restoring the rate of power
generation. The options are clear: to increase water stored in
the reservoir, the manager needs to sacrifice temporarily the
rate of power generation. Conversely, the manager can
temporarily increase the rate of power generation, but only
at the cost of reduced water storage.
The same principle applies also to managing C in agricultural
lands (
). If the amount of C entering the soil as plant litter is
fixed, the manager can create conditions to stimulate decay,
benefiting from that higher decomposition through higher
fertility and microbial activity, but at a cost to amount of C
stored (this is what we did historically). Or the manager can
effectively increase the amount stored, but only by suppressing
decay—and at a cost to energy, nutrients, and other functions
derived from decay (this is what we hope to do).
There is a difference, then, between
having
high soil C and
building
high C.
Having
high soil C gives the manager the
potential to tap into the reserve of accumulated energy, and
temporarily, at least, derive enhanced returns from its
decomposition.
Building
high C, however, involves a cost.
So when we say that increasing soil organic matter benefits soil
performance, we may not be quite right—the benefits accrue
only when we have stopped building; during the phase of C
increase, we may, in fact, have diminished soil quality.
To use another analogy: it is nice to have a large bank
account, but to build a large bank account on a fixed income
requires temporary suppression of outflow. The end result
affords potential spending; but building that potential requires,
sadly, that spending be curtailed.
5. Resolving the dilemma?
How might the apparent conflict between C sequestration
and C decay be assuaged or even used to advantage? Here are a
few preliminary thoughts, intended mainly to foster deeper
debate from which may spring insights more robust than these.
5.1. Find ways to increase C inputs
There is a way out of the paradox: increasing the amount of
C entering the soil. Until now, I have assumed a fixed amount
of C entering the soil; but if we add more C, then we can both
increase decay and augment the C stored. To extend the earlier
analogy: we can increase the rate of water inflow into our
reservoir (
). In the long run, the average outflow from the
reservoir must equal the average rate of inflow (assuming no
other losses). In time scales beyond decades, beyond the short-
term fluctuations induced by management, the average rate of
soil C decay must almost equal the rate of C added to the soil.
So adding more C, always enhances the benefits from
decomposition of added C.
The amount of C inputs to land is a product of two factors:
C
i
Z
NPP
!
f
r
Where
C
i
, annual C added to soil (Mg C ha
K
1
); NPP, net
primary productivity (Mg C ha
K
1
);
f
r
, fraction of NPP returned
to soil.
Thus C inputs can be enhanced by increasing photosynthesis
(NPP) or by increasing the proportion of NPP added to soil (
f
r
).
But increasing C inputs may not be easy. Although, 20th
century plant breeders and agronomists achieved stunning
increases in crop yields, some of those came, not from higher
photosynthesis, but from allocating more C to harvestable plant
fractions (
). According to
: “Empirical
selection for yield has not enhanced photosynthetic capacity to
date
.
[G]iven the prolonged and intense natural selection
pressures already endured by photosynthesis, we cannot be
optimistic that photosynthetic efficiency will be increased
significantly in the next few decades.
.
Further increase in the
harvest index will be limited and, so far, the maximum rates of
photosynthesis and crop growth have not been improved
genetically.” In effect, therefore, higher crop yields have come,
at least partly, by
reducing
‘
f
r
’, allocating a smaller fraction of
C to soil.
respiration rate
no-till adopted
soil C storage
water stora
g
e
power generation rate
initial tillage
tillage resumes
valve
opened
valve partly
closed
valve re-opened
soil C:
water:
Fig. 3. Conceptual illustration showing the relationship between soil C storage
and soil respiration rate (microbial activity), assuming a fixed rate of C input.
Also shown (right-hand axis) is the relationship, parallel to that for C, between
water storage and rate of electrical power generation in the hypothetical
hydroelectric dam described in Fig. 2. (Curves may not be proportional.)
H.H. Janzen / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 38 (2006) 419–424
422
Increasing the flow of C into soils may soon become even
more challenging because of growing competition for fixed C.
For example, industrial interests are increasingly eyeing crop
‘wastes’ as feedstocks for bio-fuel (
). Some have
even proposed dumping agricultural residues into oceans as a
way of sequestering C (
).
So the dilemma, in theory, can be resolved easily by
returning more plant litter to soil, directly or in manures. But
can we hope for large increases in C returned to soil, given
rising demands for harvested C?
5.2. Find ways to optimize the timing of decay
Organic matter may give highest benefit when it decays. But
the rewards of that decay are higher at some times than at
others. For example, high rates of decay during a fallow period
or after senescence of plant growth may be wasteful. Can we
better manage the annual balance between C accumulation and
decay, by how we select our crops, time the tillage, manage
residues, apply manures, irrigate the land? Can we hasten
decay when it has most benefit and suppress it when it has
least? (Returning to our analogy: can we adjust water outflow
in accordance with fluctuating power demands?) And, maybe
more daringly, can we better manage the long-term C balance,
over periods of years and decades? For example, is there merit
in long-term cycles of accumulation and decay, encouraging
accumulation for some years, then reaping the benefits, for a
time, of the decay of that accumulation?
A fruitful research objective, in recent years, has been
learning how to sequester C into recalcitrant soil ‘fractions’
that will protect the C against the scrabbling biota that seek to
use it (
Six et al., 2002; Krull et al., 2003; Goh, 2004
). Perhaps
now we should also ask whether it is possible to encourage a
suite of fractions, some that retain the C, others that are
available to microbial populations in synchrony with biological
demands for energy and nutrients. Do we really want only more
cast-iron C?
5.3. Study flows (not only stocks) of C
suggested that “To date, those concerned
with quantifying and evaluating benefits of natural ecosystems
to [humanity] have largely focused on the standing stocks of
nature rather than the flows.” Does that apply also to our
studies of soil C? Has our preoccupation now with ‘sinks’ and
‘sequestration’ and ‘capacity’ over-emphasized soils as ‘tanks’
for C? Have we been more intent on measuring how much C is
there and where it resides, than in seeing how C atoms stream
through the soil and what happens to them along the way?
Maybe what is needed is more study of process than of
structure, more study of dynamics than of capacity, more focus
on d
C
/d
t
than merely on C. By definition, this means more
devoted study of the agents of C turnover—the populations of
microbes and fauna which derive their energy from the burning
of the organic matter fuel (
, p. xi). And it may
mean studying them alongside other disciplines, and at
ecosystem levels (
).
The aim of soil C studies then might be, not merely to
maximize the amount of C stored, but to find a balance between
amounts held in reserve and amounts used for microbial
activity, a balance between amount hoarded for future use
and the amount burned for immediate benefit. “Agriculture
must always be balanced.”, said
. “If we
speed up growth we must accelerate decay. If, on the other
hand, the soil’s reserves are squandered, crop production
ceases to be good farming: it becomes something very
different. The farmer is transformed into a bandit.”
From this perspective, more is not always better: C gain is
not always good, C loss is not always bad. It is not just a
question of C gain or C loss; what counts is whether the balance
between amount stored and amount used is tuned for the
‘services’ expected of the ecosystem in question. Finding that
optimum balance for all our ecosystems in diverse conditions
might be a promising research objective. And seeking ways of
managing our lands toward that balance might be another.
These objectives might become especially urgent in the face
of pressures and stresses imposed upon our ecosystems with
coming global changes. Soils may grow warmer, litter inputs
may change as CO
2
increases, land use may intensify as
billions more of us compete for food and space. Conserving our
ecosystems and wisely extracting from them the services we
need will, assuredly, depend on our understanding better the
biological flows of C through our soils.
6. Closing thoughts
For much of the history of arable agriculture, soil C reserves
have been declining. Much of what we know about organic
matter was learned during that period of loss. But now that we
are in a period of soil C recovery (a laudable aim!), what we
inferred about organic matter’s benefits may not all apply. The
benefits of organic matter during a period of accrual, when
biological activity and decay rates might need to be suppressed,
may deserve new ways of studying C flows. Almost certainly,
these new approaches will have to look more closely at the
biotic populations that shuffle the C atoms about in the soil,
rather than merely counting how many atoms are stored.
Acknowledgements
Financial support was provided by Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada. I also acknowledge a debt to many colleagues
whose insights, in conversation or in print, helped shape my
thoughts about organic matter. Leslie Cramer and Yvonne
Bruinsma helped prepare this manuscript. Frank Larney kindly
offered wise advice.
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