REGULAR ARTICLE
Do organic inputs matter
–
a meta-analysis of additional yield
effects for arable crops in Europe
R. Hijbeek
&
M.K. van Ittersum
&
H.F.M. ten Berge
&
G. Gort
&
H. Spiegel
&
A.P. Whitmore
Received: 3 May 2016 / Accepted: 16 August 2016 / Published online: 25 August 2016
#
The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract
Background and aims
Organic inputs have a positive
effect on the soil organic matter balance. They are there-
fore an important asset for soil fertility and crop growth.
This study quantifies the additional yield effect due to
organic inputs for arable crops in Europe when macro-
nutrients are not a limiting factor.
Methods
A meta-analysis was performed using data from
20 long-term experiments in Europe. Maxima of yield
response curves to nitrogen were compared, with and
without organic inputs, under abundant P and K supply.
Results
We were surprised to find that, across all experi-
ments, the mean additional yield effect of organic inputs
was not significant (+ 1.4 % ± 1.6 (95 % confidence
interval)). In specific cases however, especially for root
and tuber crops, spring sown cereals, or for very sandy soils
or wet climates, organic inputs did increase attainable yields.
A significant correlation was found between increase in
attainable yields and increase in soil organic matter content.
Conclusions
Aggregating data from 20 long-term exper-
iments in Europe, this study shows that organic inputs and/
or soil organic matter do not necessarily increase yields,
given sufficient nutrients are supplied by mineral fertilisers.
Results show the relevance of some environmental factors
for additional yield effect of organic inputs, but no simple
relation between organic inputs and crop growth.
Keywords
Soil fertility . Soil organic matter . Organic
inputs . Crop yield . Food security . Soil carbon
sequestration
Abbreviations
SOM
Soil organic matter
SOC
Soil organic carbon
Introduction
Soil organic matter (SOM) is often considered the most
important indicator of soil fertility (Johnston et al.
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
DOI 10.1007/s11104-016-3031-x
Responsible Editor: John A. Kirkegaard.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this
article (doi:10.1007/s11104-016-3031-x) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
R. Hijbeek (
*
)
:
M. van Ittersum
Plant Production Systems, Wageningen University and Research,
Wageningen, The Netherlands
e-mail: renske.hijbeek@wur.nl
H. ten Berge
Plant Research International, Wageningen University and
Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
G. Gort
Biometris, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen,
The Netherlands
H. Spiegel
Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Institute for
Sustainable Plant Production, Vienna, Austria
A. Whitmore
Sustainable Soils and Grassland Systems, Rothamsted Research,
Harpenden, UK
Reeves
). It contributes to each of fertility
’
s three
dimensions: the physical (structure, aeration, water re-
tention), the biological (biomass, biodiversity, nutrient
mineralisation, disease suppression) and the chemical
(nutrient supply) dimension. On this basis, maintaining
SOM is an important strategy to maintain crop produc-
tivity (Lal
). SOM contains about 50 % organic
carbon (Pribyl
), making it
’
s increase a potential
means to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (Smith
). Because of this positive contribution to climate
change mitigation and food security, a voluntary action
plan has been proposed at COP21 to increase SOM in all
soils, called
B
the 4/1000 initiative: Soils for Food secu-
rity and Climate
^
(UNFCCC
In some cases however, yield effects of SOM seem
smaller than expected. Reviewing the literature,
Loveland and Webb (
) found it difficult to establish
a critical level of SOM for temperate regions. They also
did not find evidence for an adverse effect on crop yields
where SOM contents in the soils of England and Wales
were reduced. Similarly, comparing potential yields of
winter wheat and spring barley across a large range of
SOM contents in Denmark, Oelofse et al. (
) found
no significant effect on yields of winter wheat and only a
small effect on yields of spring barley.
The mentioned studies compared the effect of actual
SOM content, they did not assess specific management
practices used to increase SOM. In arable soils, SOM can
be increased by increasing organic inputs or reducing
organic outputs (Freibauer et al.
). Increasing organ-
ic inputs can be done by increasing returned biomass
(roots, litter) via higher yields or adding additional organ-
ic inputs such as compost, animal manure or crop resi-
dues. Decreasing organic outputs can be done by chang-
ing the moisture content of the soil or by using reduced or
no tillage, although the effect of the latter two remain
disputed (Govaerts
∗
et al.
). Actual increase in SOM
depends on a number of factors, such as the current
amount of SOM, type of organic input, and environmen-
tal factors such as temperature, soil texture, and humidity
(Smith et al.
).
Studies assessing the effects organic inputs on crop
yields show mixed results. A recent meta-analysis of 32
long-term experiments in China compared the com-
bined use of organic inputs and fertilizers with either
only organic inputs or only fertilizers (Wei et al.
The average yield increase of combining organics and
fertilizers on wheat, maize and rice was found to be 8 %
compared to using only fertilizers. In a different case
however, (Dawe et al.
) found no improvement in
grain yield trends with application of either manure or
straw in intensive rice systems.
How do these contrasting insights compare? Al-
though previous research has found a positive effect of
either organic inputs or SOM on crop yields (Monreal
et al.
; Wei et al.
), Oelofse et al. (
) argue
that in these studies the effect of nutrients is seldom
separated from other effects. In fact, Wei et al. (
)
also mention this as the largest limitation of their study.
To circumvent this limitation, we have assessed the
effect of organic inputs in a system without macro-
nutrient limitation. In such a system, any effect of organic
inputs on yield can be attributed to improved soil structure
or soil life (the other two components of soil fertility). In
our study, effects of organic inputs (also called organic
fertilisers, organic manures or organic amendments) on
attainable crop yields were examined in 20 long term
experiments across a variety of soils and climates in
Europe. To exclude the effects of macro-nutrients, the
yield effect was analysed under abundant phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K) supply and varying rates of nitro-
gen (N). Using this approach, we answer the following
research question: Do organic inputs increase attainable
yields? Previously, any effect of organic inputs or SOM
on crop yield which are not related to macro-nutrients has
been called the
B
additional yield effect
^
(Janssen
Our objective is: to find the additional yield effect of
organic inputs, beyond the macro-nutrients supplied.
Materials and methods
Literature search
To find data on long term experiments in Europe, two
databases with metadata were used: the EuroSOMNET
metadata on 110 long-term experiments and a database
compiled in a recent European research project
(CATCH-C (
)) containing 377 long-term experi-
ments. Promising experiments were selected and publi-
cations were searched using online search engines (Goo-
gle scholar, ISI Web of knowledge). When more publi-
cations were available for one treatment, only yield data
from the most recent publication was included.
The following selection criteria were used to select
experiments: (1) at least 4 increasing levels of N applica-
tions without organic inputs; (2) at least 4 increasing N
application levels with organic inputs; (3) P and K applied
294
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
in ample amounts on all fields; (4) at least 5 years of yield
data; (5) if crops are grown in rotation, yield data available
for at least 2 rotations; (6) yield data reported for individual
crop types (mean yield values averaged over rotation were
excluded).
Data from 20 experiments was found adhering to
these selection criteria (Fig.
and Table
). Following,
107 distinct data sets were created, each representing a
single combination of experiment location, crop type
and organic input type, covering a number of years of
yield observations. All data was processed in R 3.0.0 (R
Core Team
Calculating additional yield effect of organic inputs
for each set of data
Crop yields are known to steeply increase at lower levels
of N application while levelling off or slightly decrease at
high levels of N application. When yields are known at
different levels of N application, response curves can be
fitted (Cerrato and Blackmer
). For each set of data in
our meta-analysis, two yield response curves were drawn:
one with and one without organic inputs (Fig.
). To fit the
curves, the following formula was used (George
):
yield
¼
a
þ
b
*
0
:
99
N
þ
c
*
N
þ
ε
ð
1
Þ
In formula 1, N is nitrogen added as mineral
fertiliser (kg N/ha), a, b and c are parameters to be
fitted and
ε
is the error term. The maximum of each
curve was calculated by setting the first-order deriv-
ative equal to zero and inserting the optimal N rate in
Eq. 1. As P and K were applied in ample amounts, at
the maximum of each curve N, P and K (the macro-
nutrients necessary for crop growth) are not a limit-
ing factor for crop yields. Accordingly, the maximum
of each curve was regarded as the attainable yield for
local environmental conditions and management.
The additional yield effect of organic inputs was
calculated by taking the difference between the at-
tainable yield with and without organic inputs.
For each data set, response curves might fit the
data points better or worse, creating an error in the
estimation of the additional yield effect. To correct
for the goodness of fit of each curve, the delta
method (Oehlert
) was used, giving a variance
for each data set. The inverse of the variance was
used as a weighting factor for the calculated addi-
tional yield effect of each data set. To enable com-
parisons among crops, the relative difference was
chosen as the response variable in the meta-analysis,
expressing the additional yield effect of organic
inputs as percentage of attainable yield with only
mineral fertiliser. Fig.
in Online Resource 1
show the individual response curves, while Fig.
Fig. 1
Overview of locations of
long term experiments included in
the meta-analysis (20)
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
295
Ta
b
le
1
Details
of
experiments
(20)
included
in
the
meta-analysis.
For
each
experiment,
clay
content,
pe
rc
enta
ge
SOM
at
sta
rt,
C
G
IAR-C
SI
Global
A
ridity
Ind
ex
,
star
tin
g
ti
m
e,
cr
ops
included
in
analysis
and
references
u
sed
are
given
.F
o
r
V
ienna,
additional
data
w
as
provided
by
H
eide
Spei
gel
(AG
ES
).
For
M
ue
ncheber
g,
data
w
as
provi
ded
by
D
ietmar
Barkusk
y
(ZALF).
For
G
rab
o
w
,
d
ata
was
p
rovided
b
y
D
orota
P
iku
ł
a
(IUNG).
For
B
ologna,
additional
data
w
as
provi
ded
by
G
uido
Baldoni
(Univers
ity
of
Bo
logna).
For
P
uch
,
additional
data
w
as
provided
by
Matthias
W
endland
(Bayern
LF
L)
Expe
riment
Cl
ay
con
tent
(%
<
2
μ
m)
SO
M
at
st
art
(%)
CG
IA
R-CS
I
Ar
id
it
y
inde
x
Starting
time
Crops
T
ypes
o
f
o
rg
anic
inputs
References
u
sed
Bad
L
auchstadt
2
1
3
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ich
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straw
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Sad
-
2.
6
2
0.
6
4
1984
m,s,
w
w
FY
M,
straw
&
B
L
,
straw
&
B
L
&s
lu
rr
y
Star
č
evi
ć
et
al.
;S
ta
r
č
evi
ć
et
al.
Oldenb
u
rg
6
.1
9
2
.8
4
1
.0
9
1984
s,w
b
,ww
slu
rr
y,
straw
&
GM
&
B
L
K
lasink
and
Stef
fens
Prah
Ruzyne
33
-
0
.6
2
1984
s,w
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rkoc
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8
6
1.
2
2
1984
m,s,
slu
rry
,
straw
,
FYM,
straw
&
BL,
straw
&
GM
&
B
L,
straw
&
GM
&
slurry
,
straw
&
slurry
Hege
and
O
ff
enberger
Rau
is
chholz-hausen
17
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2
4
1.
0
6
1984
s,w
b
,ww
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&
G
M
&
BL
V
o
n
B
o
guslawsk
i
Speyer
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9
1
.2
4
0
.8
1984
s,w
b
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FY
M
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straw
&
G
M
&
BL
Bischo
ff
Sproda
6.
3
2
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0.
6
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sb,
s,ww
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,
straw
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an
d
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n
ert
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T
artu
7
.7
1.
7
1
1.
0
5
1989
p,
sb
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,
straw
&
B
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K
anal
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ldkepp
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ienna
25
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5
5
0.
7
1
1986
s,w
b
,ww
FY
M
,
slu
rr
y,
straw
&
GM
&
B
L
H
ösch
and
D
ersch
;
S
pieg
el
et
al
.
m
ma
ize
,
p
po
ta
to
es
,
s
sugar
beet,
sb
spring
barley
,
wb
winter
barley
,
wr
wint
er
ry
e,
ww
wi
nt
er
w
h
ea
t,
FYM
fa
rm
y
ard
m
anur
e,
GM
green
m
anure,
BL
be
at
le
ave
s
296
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
in Online Resource 1 gives the additional yield
effect and related 95 % confidence interval for each
data set.
Removing of outliers
Yield effects were checked for outliers by assessing the
point cloud across different variables and constructing a
funnel plot. If a data point was located outside the point
cloud and P and K could not be excluded as yield
limiting factors in the treatment without organic inputs,
the data was removed from the meta-analysis (This was
only necessary in one case).
Assessing influence of co-variates
To assess the influence of environmental factors, crop
characteristics or type of organic input, factors and co-
variables were identified. Two grouping factors were
used: type of organic input and crop type. In some cases,
a combination of organic inputs was used, for example
straw and slurry, where one of year straw was applied
and the next year slurry. Each combination of organic
inputs was included as a separate category.
In addition, for each dataset the following informa-
tion was obtained from the literature: clay content, per-
centage of SOM content at the beginning of each exper-
iment, amount of carbon in organic input, SOM change
during each experiment and duration of each experi-
ment. When numbers were given in percentage of soil
organic carbon (SOC), they were multiplied with the
conventional factor 1.724 (Pribyl
; Waksman and
KR
). Duration of each experiment was multiplied
with yearly carbon applied to give the total C added over
the years. Geographical coordinates of each experiment
were used to find the CGIAR-CSI Global Aridity Index
(Trabucco and Zomer
To assess the effect of the grouping factors and co-
variates, a mixed effects model with a hierarchical struc-
ture (Konstantopoulos
) was used. Mixed effect
models allow for incorporation of random effects, which
is important when observations are not from a stratified or
random sampling design as is typical in meta-analyses
(Gurevitch and Hedges
). The following two random
effects were incorporated in the analysis: (1) Experiment:
As a single experiment may produce multiple data sets,
experiment was used as a random factor. (2) Treatment
without organic inputs: Within a single experiment, mul-
tiple treatments with organic inputs can exist (for example
one treatment with farmyard manure and one with crop
residues) which are all compared to the same treatment
without organic inputs (with only mineral fertiliser).
Group means for crop type and type of organic input
were estimated with R-package lsmeans (Lenth
).
To find the marginal effect of each co-variate on the
additional yield effect of organic inputs, a separate mod-
el was made for each co-variate using the function lme
(linear mixed-effects model) of package nlme (Pinheiro
et al.
). Within these models, log-likelihood was
maximized and yield effects were weighted by the in-
verse of the variance. Interaction between crop type and
co-variate were checked on significance. Only SOM
change had a significant interaction with crop type.
7
8
9
10
11
0
50 100 150 200
mineral fertiliser (kg N/ha)
yield (t/ha)
(a)
with organic input
no organic input
0%
2%
4%
Additional yield effect of organic input
(b)
Fig. 2
Example of yield response curve to mineral fertiliser-N
under sufficient P and K supply with and without organic inputs.
a
Black line is the response curve without organic inputs. The green
line is the response curve with organic inputs. Squares indicate the
maximum of each curve. The difference between the two maxima
is due to the additional yield effect of organic inputs.
b
Green circle
is the relative difference between the two maxima. Green line
indicates the 95 % confidence interval due to the goodness of fit
of the two curves. Yield data is from maize grown in Novi Sad
between 1996 and 2003, with and without farmyard manure
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
297
Model selection
To assess which combination of co-variates and factors
could best explain the difference in the additional yield
effect of organic inputs, multi-model dredging was per-
formed using the dredge function in the R-package
MuMin (Barton and Barton
). This function con-
structs a list of models by combining the given co-
variates and then gives a ranking according to the
corrected Akaike Information Criteria (AICc), an indi-
cator commonly used to assess model fit (Bozdogan
Two model selections were run. In the first model
selection, only data from experiments was included for
which information on both percentage of clay and SOM
content was available (15 out of 20
)
. For the second
model selection, only experiments were included for
which data on SOM change was available (8 out of 20).
Sensitivity analysis
For some sets of data, maximum yield was not reached
within the N applications of the experimental set-up.
These maxima had to be estimated beyond the experi-
mental set-up resulting in a higher uncertainty. When
analysing the data, these points could be either included
or excluded, with each choice having its own advantage.
Excluding these data points gives a dataset with more
certainty on each individual estimate, but including
them increases the size of the total dataset. Because a
greater uncertainty results in a larger variance, meaning
a smaller weight is given to a yield effect which is
calculated with a maximum yield outside the experi-
mental setup, we chose to include these data sets in the
meta-analysis. To see the effect of including or exclud-
ing the maxima outside the experimental set-up, a sen-
sitivity analysis was done on the main results.
Results
The mean additional yield effect of organic inputs across
all 107 data sets is not significant in our meta-analysis
(1.4 % ± 1.6 (95 % c. i.)). When excluding maxima
estimated outside the experimental set-up, the mean
yield effect is slightly higher: 1.9 % ± 2.0 (95 % c.i.),
yet still not significant.
Additional yield effect across type of organic inputs,
crop types and time of sowing
Comparing different types of organic inputs, the yield
effect is roughly similar, but only the mean additional
yield effect of farmyard manure is significantly positive
(2.2 % ± 1.8 (95 % c.i.)
–
Fig.
a). Yet we did find
effects on specific crops. For potatoes the mean yield
increase is 7.0 % ± 4.9 (95 % c.i.). In addition, our
results show that maize, a crop with a less developed
root system than wheat or barley, also benefits signifi-
cantly from organic inputs (mean yield effect of
4.0 % ± 3.7 (95 % confidence interval)
–
Fig.
b).
Across the 20 experiments, cereals sown in winter do
not benefit form organic inputs in our meta-analysis
(Fig.
c). On the other hand, spring sown cereals do
−5% 0%
5% 10%
straw & green residues (32)
straw (20)
slurry (8)
farm yard manure (38)
Type of organic input
wheat (31)
sugar beet (21)
potatoes (11)
maize (15)
barley (27)
Crop type
−5% 0%
5% 10%
−5% 0%
5% 10%
Additional yield effect of organic input
winter sown cereal (48)
spring sown cereal (27)
Time of sowing
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3
Influence of type of organic input (
a
), crop type (
b
) and
time of sowing (
c
) on additional yield effect of organic inputs.
Circles are mean additional yield effects, lines the 95 % confidence
interval. Numbers in brackets are the number of data sets in each
group. Only groups with at least 8 data sets are shown. Green
residues are either green manures or beet leaves. Groups with less
than 8 data sets and results of the sensitivity analysis are shown in
Fig.
of Online Resource 1
298
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
benefit (3.4 % ± 2.6 (95 % c.i.)). Spring sown crops have
a shorter time frame to develop their root system which is
needed to acquire sufficient nutrients and water (Johnston
et al.
). Organic inputs, by improving soil structure,
might facilitate this process, resulting in larger yields.
Influence of soil, climate and amount of C added
Crops grown on more sandy soils show a positive yield
effect of organic inputs, while more clayey soils show
neutral or negative yield effects (Fig.
a). Relatively
sandy soils normally have a poorer soil structure, which
can be improved by adding organic inputs. Soils with
low SOM content would also be expected to benefit
more from organic inputs, but this is not apparent in
our results (Fig.
b).
For each experiment, we expressed climate in terms
of aridity using the CGIAR-CSI Global Aridity Index
(Trabucco and Zomer
). Lower values indicate
lower temperatures with more rainfall while higher
numbers indicate higher temperatures with less rainfall.
In our study, crops grown in wetter climates benefit
more from organic inputs (Fig.
c).
Experiments differ in the type and the amounts of
organic inputs applied annually, and in their duration.
After converting all organic inputs to total C (ton C/ha,
cumulated over the years), no significant relation was
found between total C input and the yield effect
(Fig.
d).
Relative increase in SOM
For a subset of experiments, percentage increase in
SOM during the experiment could be calculated. When
running a model selection, combining the relative in-
crease in SOM content with crop type gives the largest
explanation of variance in the additional yield effect of
organic inputs (Tables
and
in Online Resource 1).
The magnitude of the effect is shown in Fig.
a.
p
(
Δ
intercepts
)
=
0.0005
p
(
slope
)
=
0.047
−10%
0%
10%
20%
clay content
Additional yield effect of organic input
Soil texture
p
(
slope
)
=
0.81
p
(
Δ
intercepts
)
=
0.0015
−10%
0%
10%
20%
SOM
SOM at start
p
(
slope
)
=
0.042
p
(
Δ
intercepts
)
=
0.0007
−10%
0%
10%
20%
semi
−
arid
↔
humid
Additional yield effect of organic input
Climate
p
(
slope
)
=
0.063
p
(
Δ
intercepts
)
=
0.0012
−10%
0%
10%
20%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
1%
2%
3%
4%
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
0
20
40
60
80
C added over the years (ton C/ha)
Total C added
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
root or tuber crop
spring sown cereal
winter sown cereal
Fig. 4
Influence of soil texture (
a
), SOM content at the start of the
experiment (
b
) climate (
c
) and amount of C applied over the years
(
d
) on the additional yield effect of organic inputs. Clay content is
expressed as the percentage of particles <2
μ
m in the soil. Climate
is expressed as the CGIAR-CSI Global Aridity Index. Larger
points have a smaller variance and therefore a higher weight. P
(
Δ
intercepts) is the probability for the intercepts to be equal. P
(slope) is the probability the common slope is equal to zero
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
299
Discussion
When discussing possible benefits of organic inputs and
soil organic matter beyond nutrients supplied, it has
been suggested that root or tuber crops might benefit
more than cereals (Haan
; Verheijen
). The
reason being that root and tuber crops depend more on
soil structure for their successful cultivation and harvest-
ing. Our study confirms this suggestion with a mean
yield increase for potatoes of 7 %.
Crops grown in both very dry or very wet conditions
could potentially benefit from organic inputs as SOM
increases water holding capacity in dry climates (Díaz-
Zorita et al.
) and prevents soil compaction in wet
climates (Soane
). In our study, crops grown in
wetter climates do benefit more from organic inputs. As
expected for a meta-analysis over Europe, most of our
experiments (16) however have a humid climate (index
>0.65), with three experiments having a dry sub-humid
climate (index 0.5
–
0.65), one a semi-arid climate (0.2
–
0.5) and none arid or hyper arid climates (index <0.2). As
very dry climate were not included, this could be the
reason why we could not confirm whether organic inputs
have additional yield effects in dry climates.
Very weathered soils, mostly occurring in tropical
regions, were also not included in our meta-analysis.
Weathered soils often have very low cation exchange
capacity (Palm et al.
) and lack a number of micro
nutrients necessary for crop growth (Gupta et al.
On weathered soils therefore, yield effect of organic
inputs could be larger when related to treatments with
only N, P and K supplied. A recent global database
suggests experimental set-ups as used in our meta-
analysis do not exist outside temperate regions (ISCN
), establishment of such long term experiments
would therefore be recommended.
Before analysis, percentage of SOM at the start of
each experiment was expected to be the largest influenc-
ing factor. Yet, no significant difference was found com-
paring experiments with different SOM contents
(Fig.
b). There is however uncertainty associated with
comparing SOM contents across 20 experiments. When
available, measurements of the upper soil layer or plough
layer (often 24
–
30 cm) were included in the analysis, yet
depth of measurement was not always explicitly stated. In
addition, measurements of SOM are known to deviate,
depending on methods used (Hoogsteen et al.
).
Even though some error in SOM measurements might
be involved, our finding does correspond well with a
recent study in Denmark comparing yields of winter
wheat across a large range of SOM contents (Oelofse
et al.
), with similarly no effects found.
Figure
a seems to indicate that more so than the total
SOM at start (Fig.
b) or the total C added (Fig.
d), it is
the percentage of fresh SOM in the soil which makes a
difference. If so, this finding corresponds well with
suggestions of Loveland and Webb (
) that the
proportions of fresh SOM is more important than the
total pool of SOM. On the other hand, higher yields also
have an effect on SOM by returning more crop, root and
stubble residues (Glendining and Powlson
). One
could therefore question if larger yields in our analysis
are the result of the increased SOM content (Fig.
a), or
vice versa (Fig.
b)? In practice, both possibilities might
p(root or tuber)=0.027
p(spring sown cereal)=0.0024
p(winter sown cereal)=0.34
−10%
0%
10%
20%
Increase in SOM
Increase in attainable yield
SOM increases yield
or
p(root or tuber)=0.035
p(spring sown cereal)=0.05
p(winter sown cereal)=0.75
0%
10%
20%
30%
0%
10%
20%
30%
−10%
0%
10%
20%
Increase in attainable yield
Increase in SOM
Yield increases SOM
?
root or tuber crop
spring sown cereal
winter sown cereal
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5
Relation between increase in SOM and yield increase.
a
Increase in yield related to increase in SOM. x-axis: increase in
SOM between the treatment with only mineral fertiliser and the
treatment with organic inputs added. y-axis: difference in maxi-
mum yield between the treatment with only mineral fertiliser and
the treatment with organic inputs added.
b
axes vice versa from a.
Larger points have a smaller variance and therefore a higher
weight. P (
Δ
intercepts) is the probability for the intercepts to be
equal. P (
Δ
slope) is the probability for the slopes to be equal
300
Plant Soil (2017) 411:293
–
303
be true and
–
if so
–
can be mutually reinforcing: in some
cases more SOM gives somewhat higher yields, which
adds more organic matter to the soil which in turn gives
higher yields, which then again gives more SOM.
Limitations of study and broader contextualization
This meta-analysis did not find a significant mean addi-
tional yield effect of organic inputs. When assessing the
use of organic inputs on a farm or regional level how-
ever, other aspects might also be relevant. Organic in-
puts can promote the buffering function of soil in years
with less favourable conditions, thereby reducing yield
variability (Pan et al.
). In our experiments, vari-
ability in attainable yields was not lessened with organic
inputs (data not shown), but this could be tested further
under more extreme climates.
Using organic inputs can also have environmental
effects. Soils with higher SOM contents for example
might create a more flourishing habitat for soil biota
(Chang et al.
). Maintaining SOM contents can
therefore contribute to biodiversity conservation.
Combining organic inputs with mineral fertilisers can
decrease the demand for mineral fertilisers which can
have positive effects such as a decrease in demand for
fossil fuels (Wood and Cowie
). In our meta-analy-
sis, the savings of mineral fertiliser N with organic inputs
are substantial (Fig.
and Table
in Online Resource
1). The savings in mineral fertiliser N however do not
outweigh the total N in the organic inputs and mineral N
added for growth of green manures or decomposition of
straw. Consequently, organic inputs might affect the ex-
tend of nitrate leaching, nitrous oxide or ammonia emis-
sion. For nitrate leaching, both positive (Leclerc et al.
) and negative cases (Basso and Ritchie
;
Oelofse et al.
) are known. It has been suggested
that the number of years of application is crucial and that
over the long-term, if nutrients are applied attuned to crop
requirements, organic inputs have no significant effect on
nitate leaching (Maeda et al.
).
Even though the mean additional yield effect across
all data sets was not significant, a large variance exists
between data sets. Using grouping factors (crop type,
type of organic input) and co-variates (clay content,
aridity), some variance was explained, but large parts
remained unknown. In some individual cases, organic
inputs did increase attainable yield significantly (Fig.
in Online Resource 1). In others, organic inputs might
have had little effects on soil structure, either because
soil structure was already very good or because it was
beyond simple repair. These type of nuances can be
tackled in-depth in single experiments, but are difficult
to disentangle when aggregating larger data sets. Com-
bining meta-analysis with more in-depth studies is
therefore vital for more thorough understanding of pro-
cesses and mechanisms involved.
Conclusions
Using organic inputs to increase soil organic matter is
often seen as a win-win situation for food security and
climate change mitigation, such as in the recently pro-
posed
B
4/1000 initiative
^
at COP21 (UNFCCC
).
Using organic inputs to sequester carbon might be a
viable option to buy time for developing technologies
for reducing industrial emissions (IGBP
), this
meta-analysis however shows that benefits for crop
yields cannot be assumed to follow directly. On sandy
soils, in wet climates and for certain crops (some root or
tuber crops and spring sown cereals) organic inputs can
increase yields beyond the nutrients they supply. In
those cases, increases in attainable yields vary mostly
between 3 to 7 %. In the majority of cases however,
supplying only mineral fertiliser gives similar yields.
Acknowledgments
We thank all who set up, maintained and
shared data from long-term experiments in Europe through their
publications. We thank Dietmar Barkusky (ZALF), Matthias
Wendland (Bayern LFL), Guido Baldoni (University of Bologna)
and Dorota Piku
ł
a (IUNG) for providing additional data. We
acknowledge Margaret Glendining for providing an overview on
long term experiments in Europe and sharing her network. We
thank Jan Verhagen and Bert Janssen for suggestions on method-
ology and Steve McGrath and Ken Giller for reviewing the text.
Open Access
This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestrict-
ed use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if
changes were made.
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