Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Providing quality-assessed and standardised soil data to
support global mapping and modelling
(WoSIS snapshot 2023)
Niels H. Batjes, Luis Calisto, and Luis M. de Sousa
ISRIC – World Soil Information, Droevendaalsesteeg 3, 6708 PB Wageningen, the Netherlands
Correspondence:
Niels H. Batjes (niels.batjes@isric.org)
Received: 18 January 2024 – Discussion started: 27 March 2024
Revised: 20 August 2024 – Accepted: 30 August 2024 – Published: 22 October 2024
Abstract.
Snapshots derived from the World Soil Information Service (WoSIS) are served freely to the inter-
national community. These static datasets provide quality-assessed and standardised soil profile data that can be
used to support digital soil mapping and environmental applications at broad scale levels. Since the release of
the preceding snapshot in 2019, refactored ETL (extract, transform and load) procedures for screening, ingesting
and standardising disparate source data have been developed. In conjunction with this, the WoSIS data model
was overhauled, making it compatible with the ISO 28258 and Observations and Measurements (O&M) domain
models. Additional procedures for querying, serving and downloading the publicly available standardised data
have been implemented using open software (e.g. GraphQL API). Following up on a short discussion of these
methodological developments we discuss the structure and content of the “WoSIS 2023 snapshot”. A range of
new soil datasets was shared with us, registered in the ISRIC World Data Centre for Soils (WDC-Soils) data
repository and subsequently processed in accordance with the licences specified by the data providers. An im-
portant effort has been the processing of forest soil data collated in the framework of the EU-HoliSoils project.
We paid special attention to the standardisation of soil property definitions, description of the soil analytical
procedures and standardisation of the units of measurement. The 2023 snapshot considers soil chemical prop-
erties (total carbon, organic carbon, inorganic carbon (total carbonate equivalent), total nitrogen, phosphorus
(extractable P, total P and P retention), soil pH, cation exchange capacity and electrical conductivity) and phys-
ical properties (soil texture (sand, silt and clay), bulk density, coarse fragments and water retention), grouped
according to analytical procedures that are operationally comparable. Method options are defined for each ana-
lytical procedure (e.g. pH measured in water, KCl or CaCl
2
solution, molarity of the solution, and soil / solution
ratio). For each profile we also provide the original soil classification (i.e. FAO, WRB and USDA system with
their version) and pedological horizon designations as far as these have been specified in the source databases.
Three measures for “fitness for intended use” are provided to facilitate informed data use: (a) positional uncer-
tainty of the profile’s site location, (b) possible uncertainty associated with the operationally defined analytical
procedures and (c) date of sampling. The most recent (i.e.
dynamic
) dataset, called
wosis_latest
, is freely acces-
sible via various web services. To permit consistent referencing and citation, we also provide a
static
snapshot
(in this case, December 2023). This snapshot comprises quality-assessed and standardised data for 228 000 geo-
referenced profiles. The data come from 174 countries and represent more than 900 000 soil layers (or horizons)
and over 6 million records. The number of measurements for each soil property varies (greatly) between pro-
files and with depth, this generally depending on the objectives of the initial soil sampling programmes. In the
coming years, we aim to gradually fill gaps in the geographic distribution of the profiles, as well as in the soil
observations themselves, this subject to the sharing of a wider selection of “public” soil data by prospective data
contributors; possible solutions for this are discussed. The WoSIS 2023 snapshot is archived and freely available
at https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdcsoils-20231130 (Calisto et al., 2023).
Published by Copernicus Publications.
4736
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
1
Introduction
The World Soil Information Service (WoSIS) draws on a
large complement of soil profile data that have been shared
by numerous data providers. Nonetheless, a large proportion
of the 800 000 “so-called” freely available soil profiles (see
Arrouays et al., 2017), in practice, still remain “inaccessible”
due to various licence constraints (e.g. Cornu et al., 2023).
Soil data submitted for consideration in WoSIS come from a
wide range of legacy holdings (e.g. traditional soil surveys)
and increasingly include data derived from proximal sensing
(e.g. Shepherd et al., 2022; Viscarra Rossel et al., 2016). The
source data come in various formats and were determined ac-
cording to a range of field sampling and soil analytical pro-
cedures, requiring standardisation and harmonisation during
their ingestion/processing into WoSIS.
Prior to discussing the “2023 snapshot”, we provide a
short retrospective of activities that led to the development of
WoSIS. In the early days of desktop computers, ISRIC with
its partners compiled a range of project-specific databases
such as ISIS (van de Ven and Tempel, 1994), created to man-
age data for the ISRIC World Soil Reference Collection;
several national- and continental-scale SOil and TERrain
(SOTER) databases (e.g. FAO and ISRIC, 2003; FAO et al.,
2007, 1998); the WISE database (Batjes, 1997; Batjes and
Bridges, 1994); and the Africa Soil Profiles Database (AfSP)
(Leenaars et al., 2014). While these different databases were
structured along the general principles and criteria of the
FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (FAO, 1977, 2006)
and USDA Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Division Staff,
1993), the ISIS, SOTER, WISE and AfSP databases each
had their own data models and conventions. Further, out of
necessity at the time, the databases were developed and im-
plemented on stand-alone computers using a range of com-
mercial software packages. In 2009, ISRIC management de-
cided to bring the above stand-alone products together in a
centralised enterprise database, known as WoSIS (World Soil
Information Service), developed using PostgreSQL with the
PostGIS extension for handling spatial data. After the initial
ingestion and standardisation of the above “ISRIC holdings”,
the service was to be expanded with datasets shared by a di-
verse range of soil data providers.
The original aim of WoSIS was to accommodate any type
of soil data (profile, vector and grid) (Ribeiro et al., 2015;
Tempel et al., 2013). However, from 2015 onwards, in view
of technical considerations and institutional developments,
the scope of WoSIS was changed to “safeguarding, pro-
cessing, standardising and serving geo-referenced soil pro-
file (point) data for the world” (Ribeiro et al., 2020). Alter-
natively, vector and grid maps derived from traditional soil
mapping (e.g. Batjes, 2016; Dijkshoorn et al., 2005; FAO et
al., 2012; van Engelen et al., 2006) and digital soil mapping
(e.g. Hengl et al., 2017; Poggio et al., 2021; Turek et al.,
2023) would be managed and served through other compo-
nents of our spatial data infrastructure, such as the ISRIC
Data Hub (https://data.isric.org, last access: 24 April 2024)
and the SoilGrids/WoSIS portal (https://soilgrids.org, last ac-
cess: 24 April 2024). All these web services were developed
using free and open-source software (FOSS).
The ultimate goal of WoSIS, like for related global data
compilation activities (Baritz et al., 2017; de Sousa et al.,
2019), is full data harmonisation (Batjes et al., 2020; Ribeiro
et al., 2015, 2020). According to the Global Soil Partnership
(GSP; Baritz et al., 2014), harmonisation involves “providing
mechanisms for the collation, analysis and exchange of con-
sistent and comparable global soil data and information” and
considers the following domains: (a) soil description, classi-
fication and mapping; (b) soil analyses; (c) exchange of dig-
ital soil data; and (d) interpretations. In view of the breadth
and magnitude of the task, as well as the limited availabil-
ity of comparative “multiple analytical procedures” datasets
as required for full harmonisation (Batjes, 2023; Bispo et al.,
2021; van Leeuwen et al., 2022), we have limited ourselves to
the standardisation of soil property definitions, soil analyti-
cal procedure descriptions, plausibility checks for soil obser-
vation values and the standardisation of measurement units
for commonly required soil properties (see Appendix A). Im-
portantly, users should always keep in mind that the source
datasets themselves (e.g. Armas et al., 2023; NPDB, 2023;
USDA-NCSS, 2021) will provide more detailed information
than WoSIS, albeit not in a consistent, globally standardised
format.
This paper discusses methodological changes to the
WoSIS workflow and new data additions since the release
of the previous snapshot (Batjes et al., 2020). First, we de-
scribe the new data model and the refactored data screen-
ing/ingestion process and indicate how the “shared” data are
being served to the user community upon their standardisa-
tion. Thereafter, we describe the actual data screening, qual-
ity control and standardisation process. Subsequently, we de-
scribe the spatial distribution of soil profile sites and list the
number of soil observations represented in the “WoSIS 2023
snapshot” (hereafter referred to as the 2023 snapshot). In
conjunction with this, we provide three measures for “fit-
ness for intended use” of the standardised data and discuss
possible limitations of the snapshot. Finally, following up on
a discussion concerning the scope for “full data harmonisa-
tion” in WoSIS, future developments and possible constraints
arising are outlined.
The naming conventions and standard units of measure-
ment are listed in Appendix A, while the structure of the
snapshot files is described in Appendix B. In Appendix C
we list the number of sites by country/area and continent
(Table C1) as well as their distribution by World Terrestrial
Ecosystems (Table C2) and biomes (Table C3).
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4737
Soils are important providers of ecosystem services (FAO
and ITPS, 2015). WoSIS-served data have been used for a
range of applications, such as predictive soil property map-
ping (Guevara et al., 2018; Moulatlet et al., 2017; Nenkam
et al., 2022; Poggio et al., 2021; Turek et al., 2023), space
and time modelling of soil organic carbon stock change
(Heuvelink et al., 2021), and a diverse range of environ-
mental assessments (e.g. Hassani et al., 2024; Huang et al.,
2024; Luo et al., 2021; Lutz et al., 2019; Maire et al., 2015;
Sanderman et al., 2017; Sothe et al., 2022). For example,
based on the “2016 snapshot” and “2019 snapshot” respec-
tively, Ivushkin et al. (2019) mapped global soil salinity
change, while Wang et al. (2024) analysed responses of soil
organic carbon under warming across global biomes. Ulti-
mately, such information can help to inform the global con-
ventions such as the UNCCD (United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification) and UNFCCC (United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change) so that policy-
makers and business leaders can make informed decisions
about the environment, biodiversity and human well-being at
an appropriate scale level.
2
WoSIS data model and workflow
2.1
Workflow
The data model and workflow for acquiring, ingesting, pro-
cessing and serving data as described in Ribeiro et al. (2020)
were overhauled. This proved necessary as this procedure
was essentially designed as a series of dataset-specific
Python and SQL scripts, which was adequate as long as
WoSIS was still relatively small. However, in view of the
rapidly growing population of shared soil data and over-
all complexity of the data model itself, it proved necessary
to implement a new, state-of-the-art ISO domain model (de
Sousa, 2023; de Sousa et al., 2023), with refactored ETL
(extract, transform and load) procedures, to ultimately bet-
ter serve our diverse user community in our capacity as the
World Data Centre for Soils (WDC-Soils).
The main stages of the new workflow are visualised
in Fig. 1: (a) data providers share their data with ISRIC
WDC-Soils; (b) the submitted datasets with associated meta-
data are screened for “completeness of information pro-
vided” (e.g. the licence defining access rights and descrip-
tion of terms and units) and, once considered adequate, sub-
sequently stored “as is” in the WDC-Soils data repository
(see “ISRIC Admin” in Fig. 1); and (c) the source datasets
are imported into the new WoSIS PostgreSQL relational
database (see Sect. 2.2), using refactored ETL procedures
(see Sect. 2.3). Step (c) includes (c1) basic data quality as-
sessment and control, (c2) standardising descriptions for the
soil analytical procedures and units of measurement, and
(c3) automated checks against plausibility limits for each
soil observation; see Sect. 3 for details. Subsequently, (d) the
quality-assessed and standardised data are distributed via
various services such as dashboards and WFS (OpenGIS web
feature service) as well as a metadata catalogue service.
2.2
Data model
As indicated earlier, a new data model for WoSIS was de-
veloped, aligned where possible with the ISO 28258 domain
model (de Sousa et al., 2023) and the GloSIS web ontol-
ogy (Palma et al., 2024), both stemming from O&M (Ob-
servations and Measurement; Cox and David, 2011), all the
while preserving legacy data. Main features of interest are
the dataset (describes source of data), site (geo-spatial loca-
tion where a soil investigation took place) and profile (se-
quence of pedogenetic horizons along the depth of the pro-
file). The key modification vis à vis the previous data model
(Ribeiro et al., 2020) is the conditioning of analytical meth-
ods to the observation (see https://git.wur.nl/isric/databases/
wosis-docs, last access: 26 April 2024). Changes made to the
database schema and data over time are tracked using a mi-
gration tool (https://github.com/graphile/migrate, last access:
24 April 2024). It maintains a record of the history; state; and
dependencies of the database, including the conversion to the
new data model.
Special attention was paid to the succinct description of
the analytical procedures (see c2 above) using seven database
tables, as summarised below:
–
thes_method_value
. The thesaurus of values that
match the keys is used to define an analytical method,
for example, “natural clod” for the “sample type” key
for the “bulk density” method.
–
thes_method_key
. This is the thesaurus of keys that
is used to define an analytical method, for example, “re-
ported pH”, “exchange solution” and “index cation”.
–
thes_method_option
. This encodes the possible
combinations of key–value pairs for each numerical ob-
servation on layers. Note that only a small subset of ob-
servations can be associated with particular method op-
tions.
–
method_source
. Analytical method descriptions are
as defined in the respective source databases (i.e. prior
to standardisation). This table was imported as is from
the old data model (Ribeiro et al., 2020) with the addi-
tion of a synthetic primary key. The records in this table
remain essential to identify the method referred by each
result.
–
method_standard
. This distinguishes each source
method by the particular observation to which it applies.
It can be regarded as a standardised description of the
source method. Each record corresponds to a collection
of key–value pairs in the
method_option
table for
a single observation. Results for numerical observations
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4738
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Figure 1.
Schematic WoSIS workflow for ingesting, standardising and distributing soil profile data.
reference this table to identify the corresponding analyt-
ical method.
–
method_option_standard
. This
defines a many-to-many relationship between the
method_standard
and
method_option
tables.
It determines the exact collection of key–value option
pairs that constitute a standard method. The standard
method is a specialisation of the source method for a
specific observation.
2.3
ETL procedure
Extract, transform and load (ETL) is a standardised, semi-
automatic process that guides the data processor during the
ingestion of new datasets. Refactored ETL procedures were
developed to align with the structure of the ISO data model.
During the initial phase, newly shared datasets are submit-
ted to a quick consistency check (i.e. format, data model,
metadata and licence) after which they are uploaded as is
to a staging area in the WoSIS system. Subsequently, during
the transform stage the uploaded datasets are parsed by the
system. During this process, validation and standardisation
occur (see Sect. 3.3 for details). In the case of (possible) un-
conformities the system will generate descriptive messages
that guide the data processor towards possible actions that
may be needed to resolve the flagged unconformities. The
data processor then needs to correct these issues in confor-
mity with the requirements of the WoSIS procedure man-
ual in steps guided by the system; in some cases the original
data providers may need to be consulted. At the end of this
phase, the cleaned and standardised data remain in the stag-
ing area for final verification by a soil expert. After this veri-
fication, the final stage of the ETL process, “load”, can start.
This is a fully automated process during which the cleaned
and standardised data are copied into the WoSIS database
and subsequently removed from the staging area (note that
the source data themselves are permanently preserved in the
ISRIC data repository). The newly ingested data can now
be used to create a range of WoSIS-derived products (e.g.
wosis_latest
,
wosis_internal
and dashboards; see Fig. 1) in
accordance with the licences and possible restrictions speci-
fied by the data providers.
2.4
Operational definitions
Soil characteristics, such as texture, bulk density and organic
carbon content, are collated according to a wide range of pro-
cedures in different countries. For such incongruent data to
be interpreted correctly during the ETL process, the proce-
dures for their collection, analysis and reporting need to be
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4739
well documented and understood. Results can differ when
different analytical procedures are used, even though these
procedures may carry the same name (e.g. clay, silt and sand
size fraction) or concept (see Soil Survey Staff, 2011). This
makes the inter-comparison of different datasets difficult if it
is not known how these data were collected/analysed. There-
fore we use “operational definitions”, as defined by USDA
Soil Survey Staff (2011), for soil properties that are linked to
specific analytical procedures. To properly characterise the
“pH of a soil”, for example, we need information on sam-
ple pre-treatment, soil
/
solution ratio and description of so-
lution (e.g. H
2
O, 1 M KCl, 0.02 M CaCl
2
or 1 M NaF). Soil
pH measured in sodium fluoride (pH NaF), for example, pro-
vides a measure for the phosphorus (P) retention of a soil,
whereas pH measured in water (pH H
2
O) is an indicator for
soil nutrient status. Consequently, in WoSIS, soil properties
are named according to and defined by the analytical proce-
dures and corresponding “method options”, based on com-
mon practice in soil science (e.g. BDFIOD for “bulk density
(BD), fine earth fraction (FI), oven dry (OD)”). The current
list of soil properties standardised in WoSIS is described in
Sect. 3.3.
2.5
Data provisioning
Upon completion of the semi-automated ETL process, the
quality-assessed and standardised data are distributed freely
through various channels (see Fig. 1), this in accordance with
the license agreements (see Sect. 2.6):
–
Through
wosis_latest
(
dynamic
), the data are served via
WFS, the respective endpoints are catalogued at the
ISRIC Data Hub (https://data.isric.org/geonetwork/srv/
eng/catalog.search#/search?any=wosis_latest, last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024).
–
The data are also served as “fixed” snapshots
(in TSV format) with a unique digital object
identifier
(DOI)
to
permit
consistent
citation
(https://data.isric.org/geonetwork/srv/eng/catalog.
search#/search?any=wosis_snapshot,
last
access:
26 April 2024).
–
The contents of
wosis_latest
can also be visualised
using a dashboard with some querying and zoom-
ing
facilities
(https://dashboards.isric.org/superset/
dashboard/wosis_latest, last access: 26 April 2024).
–
Profile data from
wosis_latest
can also be queried
through the “SoilGrids web platform” (https://soilgrids.
org/, last access: 26 April 2024), which also provides
access to a range of soil property maps derived from
the WoSIS-served profile data and a set of environmen-
tal covariates using digital soil mapping (Poggio et al.,
2021; Turek et al., 2023).
–
The
wosis_latest
holdings can also be queried using
a GraphQL interface (https://graphql.isric.org/, last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024) that facilitates exploration of the
data (e.g. select data for organic carbon, bulk density
and proportion of coarse fragments per layer (horizon)
for profiles located in a given geography). Results of
such tailor-made queries can then be exported as in-
put in scripting languages such as Python or R (R Core
Team, 2021), for example to calculate regional carbon
stocks.
2.6
Licence agreements
It is not a simple task to find potential providers of “open”
soil data (Arrouays et al., 2017; Batjes, 2009; Cornu et
al., 2023). This may be due to technical issues, access
arrangements, reasons for sharing (e.g. “Why share the
data and for what purpose? What is in it for us?”), and
legal requirements (Bispo et al., 2021; Robinson et al.,
2019). All datasets that are shared with our centre are
first registered in the ISRIC Data Repository together with
their metadata; data sharing agreements should align with
the ISRIC Data Policy (ISRIC, 2016). During the subse-
quent WoSIS standardisation workflow, we are faced with
three different types of datasets: first, those with a non-
restrictive Creative Commons (CC-BY) licence, defined here
as at least a CC-BY (Attribution) or CC-BY-NC (Attri-
bution Non-Commercial) licence (these are later served as
wosis_latest
); second, datasets with a more “restrictive” li-
cence in the sense that they can exclusively be used for
“visualisations”, such as SoilGrids™ (i.e.
wosis_internal
;
see Fig. 1), by ISRIC itself (the latter generally because
the coordinates cannot be disclosed as stipulated by certain
data providers; for details see https://www.isric.org/explore/
wosis/wosis-contributing-institutions-and-experts, last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024); and finally, several datasets with li-
cences that stipulate that they should only be safeguarded in
the ISRIC repository and cannot be used for any data pro-
cessing (i.e. permanent embargo).
The number of profiles in WoSIS per licence category, i.e.
“public” and “restricted”, can be viewed and filtered using a
dashboard (https://dashboards.isric.org/superset/dashboard/
wosis_licenses/, last access: 26 April 2024). As shown in
Table 1, the number of “public access” profiles served
from WoSIS as snapshots increased from 96 000 in 2016 to
228 000 in 2023. Conversely, it should be noted here that a
large proportion of the forest soil data shared in the frame-
work of the EU-HoliSoils project, for instance, could not be
included in the “2023 snapshot” due to licence restrictions
specified by the data providers. As a result, only 34 000 out
of the total of 107 000 profiles shared with ISRIC between
2019 and 2023 could actually be included in the 2023 snap-
shot (i.e.
wosis_latest
).
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4740
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Table 1.
Number of soil profiles and properties served in successive
WoSIS snapshots.
Snapshot
No. of
No. of
profiles
properties
∗
Jul 2016
96 000
22
Sep 2019
196 000
45
Dec 2023
228 000
45
∗
Property names are based on “operational
definitions”, i.e. a combination of a property and
procedure in the terminology of the WoSIS data
model (see Sects. 2.4 and 3.3).
3
Data screening, quality control and
standardisation
3.1
Consistency checks
Soil profile data shared for possible consideration in WoSIS
were sampled and analysed according to various national
or international standards and presented in various formats
(from paper to digital). They are of varying degrees of com-
pleteness as discussed below. To be considered in the WoSIS
standardisation workflow (Fig. 1), each soil profile must meet
several criteria, as described earlier in Batjes et al. (2020,
p. 301). In summary, they must be associated with a site cor-
rectly geo-referenced, have consistently defined upper and
lower depths for each layer (or pedogenetic horizon), and
have observations for at least some of the soil properties that
are being served (e.g. sand, silt, clay and pH) as well as a
succinct description of the analytical procedures and units of
measurement. A soil (taxonomic) classification is considered
desirable though not mandatory. Profiles associated with a
valid site, for which only the classification is specified in the
source data, can still be useful for mapping of soil taxonomic
classes.
Consistency in layer depth (i.e. sequential increase in the
upper and lower depth reported for each layer down the pro-
file) is checked using automated procedures (see Sect. 3.2).
In line with current internationally accepted conventions,
such depth increments are given as “measured from the soil
surface, including organic layers and mineral covers” (FAO,
2006; IUSS Working Group WRB, 2022; Schoeneberger et
al., 2012; Soil Survey Staff, 2022b). Until 1993, however,
the beginning (zero datum) of the profile was set at the
top of the mineral surface (the
solum
proper), except for
“thick” organic layers, as defined for peat soils (FAO, 1977,
1990). Organic horizons were recorded as above and mineral
horizons recorded as below, relative to the mineral surface
(Schoeneberger et al., 2012, p. 2–6). As far as possible, such
“organic_surface” layers are flagged in the snapshot (see Ap-
pendix B) so that they may be filtered out during auxiliary
computations of soil organic carbon stocks, for example.
3.2
Screening for duplicate profiles
In the early stage of WoSIS, many source databases were
compilations of shared soil profile data necessitating intricate
procedures for identifying and flagging possibly repeated
profiles (see Batjes et al., 2017; Ribeiro et al., 2020). Soil
profiles located within 100 m of each other are flagged as
possible duplicates, provided the year of sampling is identi-
cal (this criterion allows for reporting results of soil monitor-
ing campaigns at the same site). Upon additional automated
checks concerning the thickness of the first three soil lay-
ers (i.e. upper and lower depth), sand, silt and clay content,
the duplicate profiles with the least-comprehensive compo-
nent of observations are flagged and excluded from further
processing (i.e. distribution). When still in doubt after these
rigorous tests, a final visual “similarity check” is made with
respect to other commonly reported soil properties such as
pH
water
and organic carbon content, possibly leading to the
flagging (exclusion) of some additional profiles.
3.3
Standardisation of property names, analytical
procedure descriptions and units of measurement
A crucial step during data ingestion is the standardisation
of the, regularly non-English, soil property names used in
the source databases to the WoSIS conventions, as well as
the standardisation of the soil analytical procedures accord-
ing to consistent “operational definitions” (see Appendix A).
Subsequently, the units of measurement are standardised and
the reported measurement values assessed according to soil-
observation-specific plausibility ranges for the respective soil
properties (i.e. likely minimum and maximum). Some of
these plausibility limits may change when more data be-
come available for soil observations that are so far under-
represented, similar to ICP Forests (2020, p. 25), and appro-
priate PostgreSQL “trigger mechanisms” have been imple-
mented for this. Data that do not meet these conditions are
flagged and not processed further in the ETL workflow (see
above), unless the observed “inconsistencies” can easily be
solved (e.g. blatant typos in pH values). Alternatively, the
data provider(s) may be contacted to resolve the observed er-
rors.
Similar to the 2019 snapshot, the following soil properties
are considered in the 2023 snapshot:
–
Chemical
. Properties include total carbon (i.e. organic
plus inorganic carbon), organic carbon, inorganic car-
bon (i.e. total carbonate equivalent), total nitrogen, soil
pH, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity
and phosphorus (extractable P, total P and P retention).
–
Physical
. Properties include soil texture (clay, silt,
sand), coarse fragments, bulk density and water reten-
tion.
All measurement values are served as recorded in the source
data, after the above consistency checks and standardisa-
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4741
tion of the units of measurement to the target units (see Ap-
pendix A). As such, we
do not
apply any “gap-filling” pro-
cedures during ETL, nor do we apply any pedotransfer func-
tions (PTFs) to derive missing bulk density data or soil hy-
drological properties or harmonise particle class size limits
to a common standard, for example. This follow-up stage of
data processing is seen as the task of the data users (mod-
ellers) themselves. In practice, the required PTFs or ways for
depth-aggregating the layer data will be determined by the
projected use(s) of the standardised data (see Finke, 2006;
Heuvelink et al., 2021; Poggio et al., 2021; Turek et al., 2023;
van Leeuwen et al., 2024; Van Looy et al., 2017). It should be
noted, however, that inadvertently some PTF-derived values
(e.g. for bulk density) could have slipped through the above
consistency checks in situations where procedures were mis-
coded in the metadata of a source dataset; critical modellers
should exclude such values during their analyses.
3.4
Providing measures for fitness for intended use
As indicated earlier, data served from WoSIS are used for
a wide range of environmental applications (e.g. Guevara et
al., 2018; Heuvelink et al., 2021; Luo et al., 2021; Maire et
al., 2015; Moulatlet et al., 2017; Poggio et al., 2021; San-
derman et al., 2017; Sothe et al., 2022; Turek et al., 2023),
but many of these assessments do not explicitly consider the
uncertainties that are associated with the data. However, it is
well known that “soil observations used for calibration and
interpolation are themselves not error-free” (e.g. Baroni et
al., 2017; Cressie and Kornak, 2003; Folberth et al., 2016;
Grimm and Behrens, 2010; Guevara et al., 2018; Heuvelink,
2014; van Leeuwen et al., 2022). Therefore, since 2019, we
have provided three measures for fitness for intended use in
wosis_latest
, namely (a) positional uncertainty of the profiles
(i.e. site location), (b) inferred accuracy of the laboratory
measurements and (c) date of sampling. These three mea-
sures, although approximative, should be duly considered in
digital soil mapping and subsequent earth system modelling
as they can affect the prediction uncertainty and “area of
applicability” of the resulting derived products (Dai et al.,
2019; Meyer and Pebesma, 2021; Shi et al., 2023). For ex-
ample, large areas of the globe are still poorly represented
in WoSIS (basically the yellow areas in Fig. 3). As indicated
earlier, this issue can only be remedied when a larger selec-
tion of datasets is shared by the international soil community
for consideration in WoSIS.
Importantly, prospective data users should also realise that
the point/profile data shared for consideration in WoSIS
are largely based on purposive sampling. During such “tra-
ditional” surveys, soil surveyors identify sample locations
based on their knowledge of the survey area, desired level
of detail (scale) and objective of the survey, for example
detailed or exploratory surveys (FAO, 2006; IUSS Work-
ing Group WRB, 2022; Soil Survey Staff, 2017). Hence,
such “legacy” data are not based on a probabilistic sampling
Table 2.
Positional uncertainty of profile site locations.
Positional uncertainty
Number of profiles
n
%
∼
100 m
195 554
86
100 m–1 km
21 653
9
1–10 km
3846
2
Over 10 km
7037
3
scheme, as recommended for digital soil mapping (Brus et
al., 2011; Brus, 2022; Cramer et al., 2019; Heuvelink et al.,
2007).
3.4.1
Positional uncertainty
Profiles in WoSIS are geo-referenced through the site in
which they were sampled in accordance with ISO 28258
standards (de Sousa et al., 2023). The coordinates themselves
are presented according to the World Geodetic System datum
ensemble (i.e. WGS84, EPSG code 4326) upon their conver-
sion from a diverse range of national projections. For most
profiles (86 %; see Table 2) the approximate positional un-
certainty of the profile locations, as inferred from the coordi-
nates given in the source datasets, is
∼
100 m. Typically, geo-
referencing before the advent of GPS (Global Positioning
Systems) in the 1970s is less accurate; often we just do not
know the “true” accuracy. Nonetheless, digital soil mappers
should be aware of this issue (Grimm and Behrens, 2010)
because the soil observations and environmental covariates
may not actually overlap (Cressie and Kornak, 2003), both
in space and time.
3.4.2
Measurement uncertainty
Soil data managed in WoSIS have been analysed according
to a diverse range of analytical procedures in multiple labo-
ratories. A measure for measurement uncertainty is thus de-
sired. Soil-laboratory-specific quality management systems
and laboratory proficiency testing (PT) can provide this type
of information (GLOSOLAN, 2023; Magnusson and Örne-
mark, 2014; Munzert et al., 2007; NATP, 2015; WEPAL,
2019). Calculation of laboratory-specific measurement un-
certainty for a single procedure, as well as multiple analytical
procedures, will require several measurement rounds (years
of observation) and solid statistical analyses (van Leeuwen
et al., 2022). Generally, however, this type of information is
not provided with the source datasets submitted to the IS-
RIC data repository. Therefore, pragmatically, we have dis-
tilled the required information from the PT literature (Al-
Shammary et al., 2018; ICP Forests, 2021a; Kalra and May-
nard, 1991; Rayment and Lyons, 2011; Rossel and McBrat-
ney, 1998; van Reeuwijk, 1983; WEPAL, 2019), as far as
technically feasible. In the case of organic carbon content,
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4742
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
for example, the mean variability was 17 % (with a range of
12 % to 42 %) and for “CEC buffered at pH 7” it was 18 %
(range 13 % to 25 %) when multiple laboratories analyse a
standard set of reference materials using similar operational
procedures (WEPAL, 2019).
The figures for measurement accuracy presented in Ap-
pendix A represent first approximations. They are derived
from the inter-laboratory comparison of analyses on well-
homogenised reference samples for a still relatively small
range of soil types. These indicatory figures should be re-
fined, for example, using probability distribution functions
(Heuvelink et al., 2007; van Leeuwen et al., 2022), once suf-
ficient laboratory and procedure-related accuracy (i.e. sys-
tematic and random error) information is provided with the
shared soil data (Magnusson and Örnemark, 2014). Alter-
natively, this type of information may be collated in the
context of international laboratory PT networks such as
GLOSOLAN and WEPAL and in the framework of the on-
going LUCAS topsoil monitoring round (Bispo et al., 2021;
Cornu et al., 2023). Meanwhile, the present first estimates
can already be considered when calculating the uncertainty
of predictive digital soil maps and of any interpretations de-
rived from them (e.g. studies of soil organic carbon stock
change).
Realistically, full harmonisation of analytical data derived
from disparate sources, the ultimate ambition in WoSIS, will
first become feasible once results of a representative set
of multi-procedure, inter-laboratory comparison datasets be-
come (freely) available, as discussed by Baritz et al. (2014),
Bispo et al. (2021) and Batjes (2023), and a common set of
reference standard operating procedures (SOPs) has been ac-
cepted as a global standard.
3.4.3
Year of sampling
For each profile site, the date of sampling has been recorded
as far as documented in the source data. This information is
important to consider when superimposing the profile data
with environmental covariates, such as land cover, for exam-
ple, in the context of space and time analyses (Giller et al.,
2006; Heuvelink et al., 2021). Most (54 %) profiles repre-
sented in the snapshot were described/sampled between 1980
and 2020 (Table 3) and less than 4 % before 1960. Alterna-
tively, the date of site description and sampling is not known
for almost 27 % of the profiles as the information was not
provided in the source materials.
4
Spatial distribution of soil profiles and number of
observations
4.1
Spatial distribution
The 2023 snapshot includes standardised data for 228 000
profiles, sampled at 217 000 different sites (Fig. 2). The
greatest number of profiles comes from North America
Table 3.
Period of sampling/analysis.
Period
N
of profiles
Percentage
<
1920
37
0
1920–1940
253
0.1
1940–1960
8632
3.8
1960–1980
35 358
15.5
1980–2000
75 686
33.2
2000–2020
47 768
20.9
Not specified
60 356
26.5
Table 4.
Number of soil profiles per continent.
Continent
Number of profiles
2023
2019
2016
snapshot
snapshot
snapshot
Africa
32 198
27 688
17 153
Antarctica
35
9
0
Asia
7763
6704
3089
Europe
39 728
35 311
1908
North America
78 996
73 604
63 066
Oceania
43 013
42 918
235
South America
26 457
10 218
8790
(35 %), followed by Oceania (19 %) and Europe (17 %),
while there are still few profiles for Asia (3 %) and Antarctica
(Table 4). The profiles come from sites in 174 countries. The
average density of observations varies greatly both between
countries (Table C1) and within each country/area.
Changes in the spatial distribution and density of profiles
(per 1000 km
2
) in the successive WoSIS snapshots (Fig. 3)
reflect the degree to which our data acquisition efforts were
successful, as further discussed in Sect. 6. Overall, the den-
sity of soil observations is still low for central Asia, southeast
Asia, central and eastern Europe, Russia, and the northern
circumpolar region in the 2023 snapshot.
The number of profiles by biome (R. J. Olson et al., 2001)
and broad climatic region (Sayre et al., 2014), as derived
from GIS overlays, is listed in Tables C2 and C3.
4.2
Number and depth of observations
In total, the profiles considered in the 2023 snapshot are de-
scribed by 0.9 million soil layers (or horizons). This corre-
sponds with over 6.1 million records that include both nu-
meric (e.g. silt content, soil pH and cation exchange capacity)
and class (e.g. WRB soil classification and horizon designa-
tion) properties. There are more observations for the chem-
ical properties than the physical properties (see Table A1).
Further, the number of observations generally decreases with
depth, largely depending on the objectives of the original
soil surveys. The interquartile range (Q1–Q3) for maximum
depth of soil sampled in the field is 33–150 cm, with a me-
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4743
Figure 2.
Distribution of sites represented in the 2023 snapshot of WoSIS (Goode homolosine equal-area projection).
Table 5.
Maximum depth of soil sampled per continent.
Continent
Maximum depth sampled (cm)
≤
30
30–60
>
60
Africa
5307
1779
22 458
Antarctica
6
7
17
Asia
635
505
4310
Europe
9411
2848
23 195
North America
6190
6728
60 698
Oceania
9216
3792
27 839
South America
1730
810
8477
dian (Q2) of 100 cm (mean
=
107 cm). It should be noted
here that most specific purpose surveys only consider the top-
soil (e.g. soil fertility surveys), while others systematically
sample soil layers up to depths exceeding 20 m (with a max-
imum of 32 m). When data from such “specific purpose sur-
veys” (defined here as
<
30 cm and
>
300 cm) are excluded,
the figures for maximum depth sampled become Q1
=
90 cm,
Q2
=
122 cm and Q3
=
155 cm, with a mean of 126 cm.
Table 5 provides an overview of the maximum depth
of soil sampled during the various surveys that underpin
WoSIS, by continent. Unfortunately, we are not able to show
the “depth to bedrock” as this information is seldom made
explicit in the source databases.
5
Distributing the standardised data
The standardised data are distributed through ISRIC’s Spa-
tial Data Infrastructure (SDI). The SDI is based on open-
source technologies and open web services (WFS, WMS,
WCS, CSW) following Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
standards and aimed specifically at handling soil data. Our
metadata are organised following standards of the Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization (ISO-19139, 2019)
using GeoNetwork (see https://data.isric.org, last access: 26
April 2024). The WoSIS database is hosted in a PostgreSQL
database, with the spatial extension PostGIS. The Post-
greSQL database itself is connected to MapServer to per-
mit data download from GeoNetwork. These processes are
aimed at facilitating global data interoperability and cita-
tion in compliance with FAIR principles. The data should be
“findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable” (Wilkinson
et al., 2016).
Static
snapshots are given a unique DOI (digital ob-
ject identifier) to permit consistent citation. The 2023
snapshot is distributed in tab-separated values format
(see Appendix B for file structure) and as a GeoPack-
age (https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdcsoils-20231130; Cal-
isto et al., 2023). An online Readme file, which includes
links to two short tutorials, provides additional technical in-
formation (https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/Readme_
WoSIS_202312_v2.pdf, last access: 26 April 2024). Al-
ternatively, the evolving dynamic version of the standard-
ised data (i.e.
wosis_latest
) can be accessed/queried through
the ISRIC Data Hub (https://data.isric.org, last access: 26
April 2024) and the SoilGrids platform (https://soilgrids.
org, last access: 26 April 2024). Tutorials describing how
to access
wosis_latest
from QGIS using WFS and with
GraphQL (Calisto, 2023) can be found on the ISRIC web-
site (see https://www.isric.org/explore/wosis/faq-wosis, last
access: 26 April 2024).
By its nature, the dynamic version will grow when
new profile data are shared and processed, additional
soil properties are considered in the WoSIS workflow,
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4744
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Figure 3.
Density and spatial distribution of profiles served with the 2016, 2019 and 2023 WoSIS snapshots.
and/or
when
possible
corrections
are
required.
Po-
tential errors can be reported via a “Google group”
(https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/isric-world-soil-
information, last access: 26 April 2024) so that these may be
addressed in the dynamic version.
6
Discussion
We describe new procedures for handling and standardising
disparate world soil profile data in WoSIS. The data model
was fully harmonised to ISO 25828 and O&M requirements,
with minor adjustments, and refactored ETL procedures were
implemented. Alternatively, it should be stressed that the ulti-
mate, desired full harmonisation of observations to an agreed
reference analytical procedure
Y
, for example, “pH H
2
O,
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4745
1
:
2
.
5 soil/water solution” for, say, all “pH 1
:
x
H
2
O” mea-
surements, will first become feasible once the target proce-
dure (
Y
) for analysing each property has been defined and
subsequently accepted as a “global standard” by the interna-
tional soil community. A next step would be to collate/de-
velop “comparative” datasets for each soil property (i.e. sets
with samples analysed according to a given reference pro-
cedure (
Y
i
) and the corresponding national procedures (
X
j
))
for pedotransfer function development. These relationships,
however, will often be soil-type- and region-specific (Glob-
alSoilMap, 2015) and difficult to develop (i.e. calibrate and
validate) when datasets for the comparisons do not yet exist
or are simply not freely shared/available (Batjes, 2023; Bispo
et al., 2021; Cornu et al., 2023; van Leeuwen et al., 2024).
Hence, regional laboratory inter-comparison programmes,
such as those undertaken in the framework of, for example,
ANSIS (2023), GLOSOLAN (2023), ICP Forests (2021a)
and LUCAS (Bispo et al., 2021), which aim to develop con-
sistent, context-specific (e.g. by country or land use/soil type)
pedotransfer functions towards an agreed set of SOPs, are
important. However, it should be noted that the standard type
of SOPs specified by these various programmes need not
be comparable. In this context, Suvannang et al. (2018) ob-
served that “comparable and useful soil information (at the
global level) will only be attainable once laboratories agree to
follow common standards and norms”. Over the years, how-
ever, many organisations/countries have implemented analyt-
ical procedures and quality assurance systems that are well
suited for their specific purposes (e.g. ANSIS, 2023; Cornu
et al., 2023; Orgiazzi et al., 2018; Soil Survey Staff, 2022a).
Consequently, they may not be inclined to harmonise their
data to a (still to be decided) set of global “reference” SOPs.
However, agreed-upon procedures for such a full-scale har-
monisation will be required when developing a globally fed-
erated, and ultimately interoperable, spatial soil data infras-
tructure (GLOSIS, de Sousa et al., 2021) through which (pre-
harmonised) source data are served and updated by the re-
spective data providers and made queryable according to a
common standard (de Sousa et al., 2023; OGC, 2019).
It is our intention to gradually fill gaps in the geo-
graphic distribution (Fig. 3) and range of soil properties (Ap-
pendix A) in the coming years. This work is part of ISRIC’s
remit as a regular member of the World Data System (https:
//worlddatasystem.org, last access: 26 April 2024). The de-
gree to which this will be feasible, however, will largely
depend on the willingness and ability of data providers to
share (some of) their data for consideration in WoSIS. For
the northern boreal and Arctic region, for example, ISRIC
can draw on new profiles collated by the International Soil
Carbon Network (ISCN; see Malhotra et al., 2019). Alter-
natively, it should be reiterated that several datasets in our
repository (e.g. ICP Forests, 2021a) can
only
be standard-
ised and used for SoilGrids™ applications due to exist-
ing licence restrictions. Conversely, some countries such as
Aotearoa / New Zealand distribute their national soil profile
dataset with a CC-BY-ND 4.0 licence, which implicitly pre-
cludes making any derivatives; hence they cannot be consid-
ered in WoSIS (see https://viewer-nsdr.landcareresearch.co.
nz/datasets/downloads/1042-2, last access: 10 June 2024).
Concerning the actual scope for expanding
wosis_latest
in
the coming years, we noted that getting positive responses to
our requests for sharing soil data is becoming increasingly
cumbersome; the overall success rate during the “2019–
2023” acquisition effort was around 25 %. However, many of
these datasets are being shared with ISRIC with the provision
that the profile coordinates themselves may not be shown;
hence, the corresponding soil data cannot be “openly” served
to our user community through
wosis_latest
. Further, the site
and profile coordinates are then regularly shared as “theoret-
ical coordinates” only (e.g. ICP Forests, 2021b; Poeplau et
al., 2020), highlighting the need for considering positional
uncertainty in digital soil mapping and other applications.
Another source of concern is that major soil monitoring pro-
grammes, such as LUCAS (e.g. Ballabio et al., 2016; Or-
giazzi et al., 2018), only consider the top 20 or 30 cm of the
soil. That is, they do not consider the actual soil profile depth
as required for more comprehensive soil assessments such as
computing changes in global carbon stocks or mapping plant-
available water-holding capacity in the root zone (e.g. Batlle-
Bayer et al., 2010; Leenaars et al., 2018; von Haden et al.,
2020; Wang et al., 2022).
7
Data availability
The 2023 snapshot is archived for long-term storage at IS-
RIC – World Soil Information, the World Data Centre for
Soils (WDC-Soils) of the ISC (International Council for Sci-
ence) World Data System (WDS). It is freely accessible
at https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdcsoils-20231130 (Calisto
et al., 2023). The zip file (446 Gb) includes a copy of the
Readme file and the data in TSV format (see Appendix B)
and OGC GeoPackage format.
8
Conclusions
Bringing disparate soil profile data from different sources un-
der a common global standard poses many and diverse chal-
lenges. A major improvement has been the harmonisation of
the WoSIS data model to ISO 28258 and O&M domain spec-
ifications. In conjunction with this, refactored ETL proce-
dures greatly improved the data ingestion and standardisation
process, and new ways for visualising, querying and serving
the data were developed to better serve our user community.
There are still numerous gaps in terms of geographic dis-
tribution as well as the range of soil taxonomic units and/or
soil properties represented. We aspire to address such gaps in
future updates of
wosis_latest
. However, as the World Data
Centre for Soils, we are largely dependent on the ability of
soil data owners to share some of their data freely for the
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4746
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
greater benefit of the international community. To facilitate
and stimulate this process, we are developing a web-based
facility (front-end) to permit data providers to directly up-
load their soil data to WoSIS in a consistent format based on
the refactored ETL procedures. As an incentive, upon their
standardisation, we aim to provide each data provider with a
tailor-made dashboard for viewing and querying the datasets
they shared, possibly with a DOI to facilitate citation.
Various sources of uncertainty are associated with the
data. Therefore, we provide three measures for fitness for
intended use of the standardised data. This information, al-
though coarse, should be duly considered by prospective
users of the snapshot.
Unfortunately, numerous soil datasets worldwide are not
freely accessible for various reasons. Standardised proce-
dures, mechanisms, policies and incentives aimed at encour-
aging soil data sharing by different categories of data owner-
s/providers are needed (e.g. Fantappie et al., 2021; Gobezie
and Biswas, 2023; Padarian and McBratney, 2020; Robin-
son et al., 2019). At a transnational level, these pressing and
complex issues are being addressed by the Global Soil Part-
nership, hosted by UN-FAO, in the context of the evolving
federated Global Soil Information System.
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4747
Appendix A: Coding conventions
Table A1.
Coding conventions for observations (i.e. a combination of property, procedure and unit of measurement), number of profiles and
layers provided in the WoSIS 2023 snapshot and inferred accuracy of measurements (codes are listed in alphabetical order).
Code
Property
Procedure
a
Unit
Profiles
Layers
Accuracy (
±
%)
b
BDFI33
Bulk density fine earth
c
Bulk density of a soil sam-
ple that has been desorbed to
33 kPa (1
/
3 bar)
kg dm
−
3
14 886
78 007
25.0
BDFIAD
Bulk density fine earth
Bulk density of a soil sample
that has been air-dried
kg dm
−
3
4238
14 485
25.0
BDFIFM
Bulk density fine earth
Bulk density of a soil sample at
field-soil water content at time
of sampling
kg dm
−
3
5265
14 075
25.0
BDFIOD
Bulk density fine earth
Bulk density of a soil sample
that has been dried in an oven
at 110 °C
kg dm
−
3
26 064
131 623
25.0
BDWSAD
Bulk
density
whole
soil
e
Bulk density of a soil sample
that has been air-dried
kg dm
−
3
0
0
25.0
BDWSOD
Bulk density whole soil
Bulk density of a soil sample
that has been dried in an oven
at 110 °C
kg dm
−
3
14 596
75 397
25.0
CECPH7
Cation exchange capac-
ity
CEC estimated by buffering the
soil at pH 7 (e.g. NH
4
Oac)
cmol(c) kg
−
1
60 339
320 532
20.0
CECPH8
Cation exchange capac-
ity
CEC estimated by buffering the
soil at pH 8 (e.g. BaCl
2
)
cmol(c) kg
−
1
6838
25 100
20.0
CFGR
Coarse fragments
Gravimetric content of soil ma-
terial larger than 2 mm
c
g per 100 g
39 481
202 414
20.0
CFVO
Coarse fragments
Volumetric content of soil ma-
terial larger than 2 mm
c
cm
3
per 100 cm
3
48 891
246 580
30.0
CLAY
Clay
d
Determination of total gravi-
metric content of clay size
fraction (for class size lim-
its and analytical methods, see
“method_options”)
g per 100g
153 319
652 347
15.0
ECEC
Cation exchange capac-
ity
Effective CEC conventionally
approximated by summation
of exchangeable bases (Ca
2
+
,
Mg
2
+
, K
+
and Na
+
) and
1 M KCl exchangeable acidity
(Al
3
+
and H
+
) in acidic soils
cmol(c) kg
−
1
35 123
143 693
25.0
ELCO20
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity assessed
on a 1
:
2 soil water extract.
Used for saline soils.
dS m
−
1
7971
44 350
10.0
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4748
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Table A1.
Continued.
Code
Property
Procedure
a
Unit
Profiles
Layers
Accuracy (
±
%)
b
ELCO25
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity assessed
on a 1
:
2
.
5 soil water extract.
Used for saline soils.
dS m
−
1
4395
17 825
10.0
ELCO50
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity assessed
on a 1
:
5 soil water extract.
Used for saline soils.
dS m
−
1
23 121
90 959
10.0
ELCOSP
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity assessed
on water-saturated soil paste.
Used for saline soils.
dS m
−
1
22 052
85 020
10.0
NITKJD
Total nitrogen (N)
Kjeldahl wet-oxidation diges-
tion procedure
g kg
−
1
72 905
240 433
10.0
ORGC
Organic carbon (C)
Amount
of
organic
car-
bon
determined
according
to
method
specified
under
“method_options”
g kg
−
1
135 655
526 953
15.0
ORGM
Organic matter
Determination of organic com-
pounds that accompany soil
particles through a 2 mm sieve
using loss on ignition (LOI) at
about 400 °C.
g kg
−
1
3871
16 282
15.0
PHAQ
pH
A measure of the acidity or al-
kalinity in soils, defined as the
negative logarithm (base 10) of
the activity of hydronium ions
(H
+
) in water
a
.
unitless
140 326
655 336
0.3
PHCA
pH
A measure of the acidity or al-
kalinity in soils, defined as the
negative logarithm (base 10) of
the activity of hydronium ions
(H
+
), in the specified CaCl
2
so-
lution.
unitless
69 437
325 153
0.3
PHKC
pH
A measure of the acidity or al-
kalinity in soils, defined as the
negative logarithm (base 10) of
the activity of hydronium ions
(H
+
), in the specified KCl so-
lution.
unitless
38 022
173 464
0.3
PHNF
pH
A measure of the acidity or al-
kalinity in soils, defined as the
negative logarithm (base 10) of
the activity of hydronium ions
(H
+
), in the specified NaF so-
lution.
unitless
4965
25 409
0.3
PHETB1
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus determined accord-
ing to the Bray-I method, a
combination of HCl and NH
4
-
F to remove easily acid solu-
ble P forms, largely Al and Fe
phosphates (mainly applicable
for acid soils)
mg kg
−
1
10 719
40 379
40.0
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4749
Table A1.
Continued.
Code
Property
Procedure
a
Unit
Profiles
Layers
Accuracy (
±
%)
b
PHETM3
Phosphorus (P)
Determined according to the
Mehlich 3 method, a weak
acid soil extraction procedure
that
is
considered
suitable
for
removing
P
and
other
elements in acid and neutral
soil. The extract is composed
of 0.2 M glacial acetic acid,
0.25 M
ammonium
nitrate,
0.015 M ammonium fluoride,
0.013 M nitric acid and 0.001 M
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
(EDTA).
mg kg
−
1
1444
7230
25.0
PHETOL
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus determined accord-
ing to the Olsen method (0.5 M
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO
3
)
solution at a pH of 8.5); used to
extract P from calcareous, alka-
line and neutral soils.
mg kg
−
1
4266
12 291
25.0
PHPRTN
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus retention measured
according to the New Zealand
method
(Blakemore
et
al.,
1981).
g per 100 g
5599
26 569
20.0
PHPTOT
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus determined with a
“harsh” digest procedure to lib-
erate and measure all forms of
element.
mg kg
−
1
7561
19 310
15.0
PHPWSL
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus soluble in soluble
in water
mg kg
−
1
282
1241
15.0
SAND
Sand
Determination of total gravi-
metric content of sand size
fraction (for class size lim-
its and analytical methods, see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
119 127
542 463
15.0
SILT
Silt
f
Determination of total gravi-
metric content of silt size
fraction (for class size lim-
its and analytical methods, see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
145 906
620 790
15.0
TCEQ
Calcium
carbonate
equivalent (TCEQ)
Determination of the gravimet-
ric loss of carbonates as car-
bon dioxide in the presence of
excess hydrochloric acid. The
quantity of carbonate (CO
3
) in
the soil is expressed as CaCO
3
and as a weight percentage of
the size fraction that is less than
2 mm.
g kg
−
1
59 294
247 368
10.0
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4750
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Table A1.
Continued.
Code
Property
Procedure
a
Unit
Profiles
Layers
Accuracy (
±
%)
b
TOTC
Total carbon (C)
Total C is quantified by two ba-
sic methods: wet or dry com-
bustion (see “method options”).
In total C determinations, all
forms of C in a soil are con-
verted to CO
2
followed by a
quantification of the evolved
CO
2
. Total C can be used to es-
timate the organic C content of
a soil. The difference between
total and inorganic C is an esti-
mate of the organic C.
g kg
−
1
33 527
112 787
10.0
WG0006
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water retention assessed at ten-
sion 6 kPa (see method op-
tions’)
g per 100 g
827
3828
20.0
WG0010
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
10 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
2970
12 517
20.0
WG0033
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
33 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
20 994
94 707
20.0
WG0100
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
100 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
687
3360
20.0
WG0200
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
200 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
4391
27 773
20.0
WG0500
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
500 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
326
1414
20.0
WG1500
Water retention gravi-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
1500 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
g per 100 g
33 782
181 999
20.0
WV0010
Water retention volu-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
10 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
cm
3
per 100 cm
3
1914
6883
20.0
WV0033
Water retention volu-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
33 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
cm
3
per 100 cm
3
7444
22 291
20.0
WV0100
Water retention volu-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
100 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
cm
3
per 100 cm
3
747
2553
20.0
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4751
Table A1.
Continued.
Code
Property
Procedure
a
Unit
Profiles
Layers
Accuracy (
±
%)
b
WV0500
Water retention volu-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
500 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
cm
3
per 100 cm
3
702
1758
20.0
WV1500
Water retention volu-
metric
Water
retention
assessed
at
tension
1500 kPa
(see
“method_options”).
cm
3
per 100 cm
3
7904
23 331
20.0
a
Method options for each analytical procedure are described in Batjes and van Oostrum (2023) and provided in the
wosis_202312_xxxx.tsv
file; see Appendix C.
b
Inferred accuracy (or uncertainty), rounded to the nearest 5 %, unless otherwise indicated (i.e. units for soil pH), as derived from various sources (Al-Shammary et al., 2018;
Kalra and Maynard, 1991; Rayment and Lyons, 2011; Rossel and McBratney, 1998; van Reeuwijk, 1983; WEPAL, 2019). These figures are first approximations that should be
fine-tuned once more specific results of laboratory proficiency tests, i.e. national Soil Quality Management systems, become freely available (e.g. from the GLOSOLAN
laboratory proficiency programme).
c
Generally, the fine earth fraction is defined as being
<
2
mm. Alternatively, an upper limit of 1 mm was used in the former Soviet Union and its satellite states (Katchynsky
scheme). The actual size limits are specified under “method_options” (see Appendix C).
d
Provided only when the sum of clay, silt and sand fraction is
≥
90
and
≤
100
% (note that users should normalise the totals to 100 % before using them for mapping or
modelling purposes; further, more stringent limits (e.g.
≥
98
and
≤
102
) may be considered).
e
No data are being served for this property because the associated licences are flagged as “restricted” by the data providers.
f
The lower and upper limits for the “silt” size fraction can vary markedly between countries; hence these limits have been specified explicitly in WoSIS under
“method_options” (see Appendix B). Development and application of conversion procedures to one common “silt” fraction (e.g. 0.002–0.05 mm) are beyond the remit of the
WoSIS project itself. The necessary pedotransfer functions should be developed (and tested) prior to generating particle-size-class-related soil property maps for a given
geography. Research in this direction is being undertaken by the SoilGrids team, based on the “best available” comparative datasets for calibration.
Table A2.
Coding conventions and brief descriptions for soil classification, horizon designations and number of occurrences in the WoSIS
2023 snapshot.
Code
Description
Count
CSTX
Classification of the soil profile accord-
ing to specified edition (year) of USDA
Soil Taxonomy, at least at soil order
level
31 400
CWRB
Classification of the soil profile ac-
cording to specified edition (year) of
the World Reference Base for Soil Re-
sources (WRB), at least at reference soil
group level
39 649
CFAO
Classification of the soil profile accord-
ing to specified edition (year) of the
FAO-UNESCO legend, at least at major
group level
38 792
HODS
a
Horizon designations as provided in the
source databases
80 849/396 522
b
a
Where available, the “cleaned” (original) layer/horizon designation is provided for general
information; these codes have not been standardised as they vary widely between different
classification systems (Bridges, 1993; Gerasimova et al., 2013). When no horizon designations
are provided in the source data bases, we have flagged all layers with an upper depth given as
being negative (e.g.
−
10
to 0 cm, that is using pre-1993 conventions (see Sect. 3.1) in the
source databases as likely being a shallow “organic surface” layer above a mineral soil layer.
b
Number of profiles with horizon descriptions as well as the total number of layers with
horizon designations.
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4752
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Appendix B: Structure of the WoSIS 2023 snapshot
This
appendix
describes
the
structure
of
the
data
files served with the WoSIS 2023 snapshot, namely
wosis_202312_observations.tsv
,
wosis_20312_site.tsv,
wosis_202312_profiles.tsv
,
wosis_202312_layers.tsv
and
wosis_202312_xxxx.tsv
(where “
xxxx”
is the name of the
observation). The data files are also distributed in OGC
GeoPackage format, which stores the files within an SQLite
database. Technical details are provided in a Readme file
(https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/Readme_WoSIS_
202312_v2.pdf, last access: 26 April 2024).
wosis_202312_observations.tsv
. This file lists the four- to
six-letter codes for each observation, whether the observa-
tion is for a site/profile or layer (horizon), the unit of mea-
surement, and the number of profiles and layers represented
in the snapshot. It also provides the inferred accuracy for the
laboratory measurements (see Appendix A).
code
Code for the observation
property
Description of soil property
procedure
Description of analytical procedure
unit
Standard unit of measurement
profiles
Number of profiles that have at least one
measurement for the observation
layers
Number of layers that have measurements
for the observation
accuracy
Inferred
accuracy
of
the
laboratory
measurements (first approximation; see
Sect. 3.4.2)
wosis_202312_site.tsv
. This file characterises the site loca-
tion where profiles were sampled. The following field names
are used.
site_id
Primary key
longitude
Longitude
in
degrees
(WGS84)
latitude
Latitude
in
degrees
(WGS84)
positional_uncertainty
Positional uncertainty of the
profile’s site location, ex-
pressed in four classes (see
Table 2)
country_name
Name of country/area where
site is located
region
Region in which site is lo-
cated
continent
Continent in which site is lo-
cated
wosis_202312_profiles.tsv
. Presents the unique profile ID
(i.e. primary key), site_id, source of the data, country ISO
code and name, positional uncertainty, latitude and longitude
(WGS84), and maximum depth of soil described and sam-
pled, as well as information on the soil classification sys-
tem and edition. Depending on the soil classification system
used, the number of fields will vary. For example, for the
World Soil Reference Base (WRB) system, the options are
publication year (i.e. version), reference_soil_group_code,
reference_soil_group_name, and the name(s) of the prefix
(primary) qualifier(s) and suffix (supplementary) qualifier(s).
The terms principal qualifier and supplementary qualifier
have been used since 2015 (IUSS Working Group WRB,
2015, 2022); earlier WRB versions used prefix and suffix for
this (e.g. IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). Alternatively,
for USDA Soil Taxonomy, the version (year), order, subor-
der, great group and subgroup can be accommodated (Soil
Survey Staff, 2014). The following field names are used.
profile_id
Primary key
profile_code
Code for the profile
dataset_code
Identifier for source dataset
site_id
Identifier for site where profile is lo-
cated
positional_uncertainty
Positional uncertainty of the pro-
file’s site location, expressed in four
classes (see Table 2)
country_name
Name of country/area where site is
located
longitude
Longitude in degrees (WGS84)
latitude
Latitude in degrees (WGS84)
wrb_reference_soil_group_code
Code for WRB group (in given ver-
sion of WRB)
wrb_reference_soil_group
Full name for reference soil group
wrb_prefix_qualifiers
Name for prefix (i.e. for WRB1988)
wrb_suffix_qualifiers
Name for suffix (i.e. for WRB1988)
wrb_principal_qualifiers
Name
for
principal
qualifiers
(i.e. for WRB 2015 and WRB
2022)
wrb_supplementary qualifiers
Name for supplementary qualifiers
(i.e. for WRB 2015 and WRB 2022)
wrb_publication _year
Version of World Reference Base
for Soil Resources
fao_major_group_code
Code for major group (in given ver-
sion of the legend),
fao_major_group
Name of major group
fao_soil_unit_code
Code for soil unit
fao_soil_unit
Name of soil unit
fao_publication _year
Version of FAO legend (e.g. 1974 or
1988)
usda_order_name
Name of USDA Soil Taxonomy or-
der
usda_suborder
Name of USDA Soil Taxonomy
suborder
usda_great_group
Name of USDA Soil Taxonomy
greatgroup
usda_subgroup
Name of USDA Soil Taxonomy
subgroup
usda_publication_year
Version of USDA Soil Taxonomy
wosis_202312_layers.tsv
. This file characterises the layers
(or horizons) per profile.
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4753
profile_id
Primary key
layer_id
Sequential number for the layer (or
horizon)
profile_code
Code for the profile
site_id
Identifier for site where profile is lo-
cated
layer_name
Name of pedogenetic horizon (as is)
upper_depth
Upper depth of layer
lower_depth
Lower depth of layer
layer_number
Sequential number for the layer (or
horizon)
organic_surface
Flag for the presence of an organic
layer above the mineral soil
dataset_id
Abbreviation for source dataset
(e.g. WD-ISCN)
licence
Licence for observation as indi-
cated by the data provider (e.g. CC
BY)
wosis_202312_xxxx.tsv
. For each observation (e.g. “xxxx”
=
“BDFIOD”),
as
defined
under
“code”
in
file
wosis_202312_observation.tsv
, the following are listed.
profile_id
Primary key
layer_id
Primary key (number, se-
quential from top to bottom)
profile_code
Code for given profile
layer_name
Name of pedogenetic hori-
zon (as is)
upper_depth
Upper depth of layer
lower_depth
Lower depth of layer
organic_surface
Indicates if there is an or-
ganic layer above the min-
eral surface
value
Array listing all measure-
ment values for observation
“
xxxx
” for the given layer.
(In some cases, more than
one observation is reported
for a given horizon (layer)
in the source, for example
four values for TOTC: [1
:
5
.
4, 2
:
8
.
2, 3
:
6
.
3, 4
:
7
.
7]
(see value_avg below).)
method_options
Array listing the method
options for each analytical
procedure as distilled from
the source data. (The content
of this array varies with the
soil observation under con-
sideration as described in
the method option table for
each analytical procedure.
For example, in the case
of
electrical
conductivity
(ELCO), the method options
include sample pretreatment
(e.g. sieved over 2 mm size,
solution (e.g. water), ratio
(e.g. 1
:
5) and ratio base
(e.g. weight
/
volume)). For
details, see Batjes and van
Oostrum (2023).)
value_avg
Average, for above (it is rec-
ommended to use this value
for “routine” modelling)
dataset_id
Abbreviation
for
source
dataset (e.g. WD-ISCN)
country_name
Name of country/area where
site is located
longitude
Longitude
in
degrees
(WGS84)
latitude
Latitude
in
degrees
(WGS84)
positional_uncertainty
Positional uncertainty of the
profile’s site location (see
Table 2)
region
Region in which site is lo-
cated
continent
Continent where the pro-
file’s site is located
date
Date the profile was de-
scribed/sampled
licence
Licence for given data, as in-
dicated by the data provider
(i.e. CC BY or CC BY-NC)
Format
. All fields in the above files are tab-delimited, with
double quotation marks as text delimiters. File coding is ac-
cording to the UTF-8 Unicode transformation format.
Using the data
. Tutorials for downloading and query-
ing the data, using various platforms, are provided on the
WoSIS FAQ web page (https://www.isric.org/explore/wosis/
faq-wosis, last access: 24 April 2024).
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4754
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Appendix C: Distribution of sites
Table C1.
Number of sites per continent and country/area.
Continent
Country/area
a
Code
No. of sites
Area (km
2
)
Site density
(per 1000 km
2
)
Africa
Abyei
b
4
0
9943
0
Algeria
DZ
10
230 8647
0.004
Angola
AO
1168
1 246 690
0.937
Benin
BJ
743
115 247
6.447
Botswana
BW
994
578 247
1.719
British Indian Ocean Territory
IO
0
49
0
Burkina Faso
BF
2023
273 281
7.403
Burundi
BI
36
26 857
1.34
Cameroon
CM
1417
465 363
3.045
Cabo Verde
CV
0
4056
0
Central African Republic
CF
88
619 591
0.142
Chad
TD
7
1 265 392
0.006
Comoros
KM
0
1652
0
Republic of Congo
CG
70
340 599
0.206
Côte d’Ivoire
CI
255
321 762
0.793
Democratic Republic of the Congo
CD
378
2 329 162
0.162
Djibouti
DJ
0
21 670
0
Egypt
EG
26
982 161
0.026
Equatorial Guinea
GQ
0
27 000
0
Eritrea
ER
0
120 763
0
Ethiopia
ET
1712
1 129 314
1.516
Gabon
GA
47
264 022
0.178
Gambia
GM
0
11 203
0
Ghana
GH
432
238 842
1.809
Guinea
GN
128
243 023
0.527
Guinea-Bissau
b
GW
15
30 740
0.488
Hala’ib Triangle
b
10
0
17 684
0
Ilemi Triangle
b
13
0
3179
0
Kenya
KE
1603
582 342
2.753
Lesotho
LS
33
30 453
1.084
Liberia
LR
50
96 103
0.52
Libya
LY
14
1620 583
0.009
Madagascar
MG
130
588 834
0.221
Malawi
MW
3050
118 715
25.692
Mali
ML
885
1 251 471
0.707
Ma’tan al-Sarra
b
11
0
1993
0
Mauritania
MR
13
1 038 527
0.013
Mauritius
MU
0
2014
0
Mayotte
YT
0
378
0
Morocco
MA
113
414 030
0.273
Mozambique
MZ
565
787 305
0.718
Namibia
NA
1569
823 989
1.904
Niger
NE
520
1 182 602
0.44
Nigeria
NG
1402
908 978
1.542
Réunion
RE
0
2504
0
Rwanda
RW
1016
25 388
40.018
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
SH
0
399
0
São Tomé and Príncipe
ST
0
991
0
Senegal
SN
312
196 200
1.59
Seychelles
SC
0
499
0
Sierra Leone
SL
12
72 281
0.166
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4755
Table C1.
Continued.
Continent
Country/area
Code
No. of sites
Area (km
2
)
Site density
(per 1000 km
2
)
Somalia
SO
245
632 562
0.387
South Africa
ZA
879
1 220 127
0.72
South Sudan
SS
82
629 821
0.13
Sudan
SD
130
1 843 196
0.071
Eswatini (formerly Swaziland)
SZ
14
17 290
0.81
Togo
TG
9
56 767
0.159
Tunisia
TN
60
155 148
0.387
Uganda
UG
84
241 495
0.348
United Republic of Tanzania
TZ
1910
939 588
2.033
Western Sahara
b
EH
0
268 617
0
Zambia
ZM
603
751 063
0.803
Zimbabwe
ZW
413
390 648
1.057
Antarctica
Antarctica
AQ
30
12 537 967
0.002
Bouvet Island
BV
0
45
0
French Southern and Antarctic Territories
TF
0
7738
0
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
HM
0
412
0
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
GS
0
3870
0
Asia
Afghanistan
AF
19
641 827
0.03
Aksai Chin
b
1
0
30 666
0
Armenia
AM
509
29 624
17.182
Arunachal Pradesh
b
2
2
67 965
0.029
Azerbaijan
AZ
28
164 780
0.17
Bahrain
BH
2
673
2.97
Bangladesh
BD
207
139 825
1.48
Bhutan
BT
85
37 674
2.256
Brunei Darussalam
BN
0
5899
0
Cambodia
KH
424
181 424
2.337
China
CN
1644
9 345 214
0.176
China/India disputed territory
b
3
0
3526
0
Christmas Island
CX
0
136
0
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
CC
0
16
0
Cyprus
CY
12
9249
1.297
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
KP
0
122 465
0
Georgia
GE
18
69 785
0.258
Hong Kong SAR
HK
2
1081
1.851
India
IN
199
2 961 118
0.067
Indonesia
ID
179
1 888 620
0.095
Iran (Islamic Republic of)
IR
2010
1 677 319
1.198
Iraq
IQ
14
435 864
0.032
Israel
IL
17
20 720
0.82
Jammu and Kashmir
b
12
4
186 035
0.022
Japan
JP
197
373 651
0.527
Jordan
JO
47
89 063
0.528
Kazakhstan
KZ
52
2 841 103
0.018
Kuril Islands
b
5
0
4996
0
Kuwait
KW
1
17 392
0.057
Kyrgyzstan
KG
1
199 188
0.005
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
LA
20
230 380
0.087
Lebanon
LB
10
10 136
0.987
Macau SAR
MO
0
17
0
Malaysia
MY
155
329 775
0.47
Maldives
MV
0
223
0
Mongolia
MN
9
1 564 529
0.006
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4756
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Table C1.
Continued.
Continent
Country/area
Code
No. of sites
Area (km
2
)
Site density
(per 1000 km
2
)
Myanmar
MM
0
667 085
0
Nepal
NP
142
147 437
0.963
State of Palestine
b
PS
18
6225
2.892
Oman
OM
11
308 335
0.036
Pakistan
PK
45
788 439
0.057
Paracel Islands
b
6
0
8
0
Philippines
PH
78
296 031
0.263
Qatar
QA
0
11 549
0
Republic of Korea
KR
23
99 124
0.232
Saudi Arabia
SA
7
1 925 621
0.004
Scarborough Reef
b
7
0
44
0
Senkaku Islands
b
8
0
5
0
Singapore
SG
1
594
1.683
Spratly Islands
b
9
0
1
0
Sri Lanka
LK
73
66 173
1.103
Syrian Arab Republic
SY
69
188 128
0.367
Taiwan
TW
35
36 127
0.969
Tajikistan
TJ
5
142 004
0.035
Thailand
TH
479
515 417
0.929
Timor-Leste
TL
0
14 892
0
Türkiye
TR
69
781 229
0.088
Turkmenistan
TM
0
555 052
0
United Arab Emirates
AE
12
71 079
0.169
Uzbekistan
UZ
9
449 620
0.02
Vietnam
VN
29
327 575
0.089
Yemen
YE
284
453 596
0.626
Europe
Albania
AL
97
28 682
3.382
Andorra
AD
0
475
0
Austria
AT
128
83 964
1.524
Belarus
BY
96
207 581
0.462
Belgium
BE
7013
30 669
228.667
Bosnia and Herzegovina
BA
32
51 145
0.626
Bulgaria
BG
134
111 300
1.204
Croatia
HR
78
56 589
1.378
Czech Republic
CZ
666
78 845
8.447
Denmark
DK
72
44 458
1.619
Estonia
EE
241
45 441
5.304
Faroe Islands
FO
0
1400
0
Finland
FI
442
336 892
1.312
France
FR
3183
548 785
5.8
Germany
DE
4362
357 227
12.211
Gibraltar
GI
0
6
0
Greece
GR
374
132 549
2.822
Guernsey
GG
0
79
0
Holy See
VA
0
0
0
Hungary
HU
1421
93 119
15.26
Iceland
IS
17
102 566
0.166
Ireland
IE
124
69 809
1.776
Isle of Man
IM
0
573
0
Italy
IT
576
301 651
1.909
Jersey
JE
0
120
0
Latvia
LV
102
64 563
1.58
Liechtenstein
LI
0
151
0
Lithuania
LT
127
64 943
1.956
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4757
Table C1.
Continued.
Continent
Country/area
Code
No. of sites
Area (km
2
)
Site density
(per 1000 km
2
)
Luxembourg
LU
142
2621
54.184
Malta
MT
0
316
0
Monaco
MC
0
8
0
Montenegro
ME
12
13 776
0.871
Netherlands
NL
958
35 203
27.214
Norway
NO
507
324 257
1.564
Poland
PL
796
311 961
2.552
Portugal
PT
455
91 876
4.952
Republic of Moldova
MD
35
33 798
1.036
Romania
RO
113
238 118
0.475
Russian Federation
RU
1464
16 998 830
0.086
San Marino
SM
0
60
0
Serbia
RS
69
88 478
0.78
Slovakia
SK
161
49 072
3.281
Slovenia
SI
67
20 320
3.297
Spain
ES
907
505 752
1.793
Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands
SJ
4
63 464
0.063
Sweden
SE
594
449 212
1.322
Switzerland
CH
10 928
41 257
264.874
Republic of North Macedonia
MK
20
25 424
0.787
Ukraine
UA
462
600 526
0.769
United Kingdom
GB
1727
244 308
7.069
North America
Anguilla
AI
0
79
0
Antigua and Barbuda
AG
0
452
0
Aruba
AW
0
180
0
Bahamas
BS
0
11 904
0
Barbados
BB
3
433
6.928
Belize
BZ
26
21 764
1.195
Bermuda
BM
0
63
0
British Virgin Islands
VG
0
154
0
Canada
CA
8778
9 875 646
0.889
Cayman Islands
KY
0
269
0
Clipperton Island
CP
0
9
0
Costa Rica
CR
560
51 042
10.971
Cuba
CU
53
110 863
0.478
Dominica
DM
0
751
0
Dominican Republic
DO
10
48 099
0.208
El Salvador
SV
38
20 732
1.833
Greenland
GL
2
2 165 159
0.001
Grenada
GD
0
318
0
Guadeloupe
GP
5
1697
2.947
Guatemala
GT
28
109 062
0.257
Haiti
HT
0
27 022
0
Honduras
HN
38
112 124
0.339
Jamaica
JM
74
10 965
6.749
Martinique
MQ
0
1104
0
Mexico
MX
12 599
1 949 527
6.463
Montserrat
MS
0
101
0
Netherlands Antilles
AN
4
790
5.066
Nicaragua
NI
21
128 376
0.164
Panama
PA
50
74 850
0.668
Puerto Rico
PR
280
8937
31.329
Saint Kitts and Nevis
KN
0
262
0
Saint Lucia
LC
0
603
0
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4758
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Table C1.
Continued.
Continent
Country/area
Code
No. of sites
Area (km
2
)
Site density
(per 1000 km
2
)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
PM
0
233
0
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
VC
0
427
0
Trinidad and Tobago
TT
2
5144
0.389
Turks and Caicos Islands
TC
0
530
0
United States Minor Outlying Islands
UM
0
348
0
United States of America
US
56 322
9 315 946
6.046
United States Virgin Islands
VI
46
352
130.555
Oceania
American Samoa
AS
0
200
0
Australia
AU
42 767
7 687 634
5.563
Cook Islands
CK
0
241
0
Fiji
FJ
6
18 293
0.328
French Polynesia
PF
0
3967
0
Guam
GU
15
544
27.579
Kiribati
KI
0
1020
0
Marshall Islands
MH
0
268
0
Micronesia (Federated States of)
FM
75
740
101.343
Nauru
NR
0
22
0
New Caledonia
NC
2
18 574
0.108
Aotearoa / New Zealand
NZ
52
270 415
0.192
Niue
NU
0
263
0
Norfolk Island
NF
0
38
0
Northern Mariana Islands
MP
0
476
0
Palau
PW
18
451
39.924
Papua New Guinea
PG
24
462 230
0.052
Pitcairn Islands
PN
0
49
0
Samoa
WS
18
2835
6.349
Solomon Islands
SB
1
28 264
0.035
Tokelau
TK
0
15
0
Tonga
TO
0
700
0
Tuvalu
TV
0
48
0
Vanuatu
VU
1
12 236
0.082
Wake Island
b
WK
0
7
0
Wallis and Futuna Islands
WF
0
142
0
South America
Argentina
AR
253
2 780 175
0.091
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
BO
87
1 084 491
0.08
Brazil
BR
9262
8 485 946
1.091
Chile
CL
13 662
753 355
18.135
Colombia
CO
236
1 137 939
0.207
Ecuador
EC
94
256 249
0.367
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
b
FK
0
12 084
0
French Guiana
GF
30
83 295
0.36
Guyana
GY
43
211 722
0.203
Paraguay
PY
2
399 349
0.005
Peru
PE
158
1 290 640
0.122
Suriname
SR
31
145 100
0.214
Uruguay
UY
136
177 811
0.765
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
VE
204
912 025
0.224
a
Country names and areas are based on the Global Administrative Unit Layers (GAUL) database; see
https://data.apps.fao.org/map/catalogsrv/eng/catalog.search?id=12691#/metadata/9c35ba10-5649-41c8-bdfc-eb78e9e65654 (last access:
26 April 2024).
b
Disputed territory.
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4759
Table C2.
Number of sites by World Terrestrial Ecosystems (WTE)
∗
.
Temperature zone
Moisture zone
No. of sites
Percent (%)
Polar
Dry
224
0.1
Polar
Moist
532
0.2
Boreal
Dry
1789
0.8
Boreal
Moist
3398
1.6
Cool temperate
Desert
25
0
Cool temperate
Dry
10 968
5
Cool temperate
Moist
53 245
24.5
Warm temperate
Desert
238
0.1
Warm temperate
Dry
29 209
13.4
Warm temperate
Moist
46 533
21.4
Subtropical
Desert
296
0.1
Subtropical
Dry
25 748
11.8
Subtropical
Moist
17 906
8.2
Tropical
Desert
178
0.1
Tropical
Dry
11 315
5.2
Tropical
Moist
11 095
5.1
No data
–
4674
2.2
∗
World Terrestrial Ecosystems (WTE) as defined by Sayre (2022). Total may differ
from 100 % due to rounding.
Table C3.
Number of sites by WWF biome
∗
.
WWF biome
No. of sites
Percent (%)
Boreal forests/taiga
5519
2.5
Deserts and xeric shrublands
13 410
6.2
Flooded grasslands and savannas
792
0.4
Lakes
85
0
Mangroves
765
0.4
Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub
24 459
11.3
Montane grasslands and shrublands
2796
1.3
Rock and ice
20
0
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
74 068
34.1
Temperate coniferous forests
14 436
6.6
Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands
23 890
11
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
2363
1.1
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
4120
1.9
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas and shrublands
31 376
14.4
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
16 478
7.6
Tundra
2072
1
No data
724
0.3
∗
Biomes defined according to
Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World
(WWF) (D. M. Olson et al., 2001). Total may differ
from 100 % due to rounding.
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4760
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Author contributions.
NHB is the scientific lead of the WoSIS
project and wrote the first draft. LC developed the ETL and
GraphQL procedures, while LMdS developed the new data model.
All authors performed quality checks and data analyses and con-
tributed to the writing and editing of the final paper.
Competing interests.
The contact author has declared that none
of the authors has any competing interests.
Disclaimer.
ISRIC – World Soil Information remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.
Publisher’s
note:
Copernicus
Publications
remains
neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims made in the text, published
maps, institutional affiliations, or any other geographical represen-
tation in this paper. While Copernicus Publications makes every
effort to include appropriate place names, the final responsibility
lies with the authors.
Acknowledgements.
The development of WoSIS has been made
possible thanks to the contributions and shared knowledge of a
steadily growing number of data providers, including soil sur-
vey organisations, research institutes and individual experts, for
which we are grateful. Regrettably, we can impossibly acknowl-
edge all contributors (e.g. field surveyors, laboratory person-
nel, soil experts and database experts) individually. Therefore,
we do this largely in a generic way (see https://www.isric.org/
explore/wosis/wosis-contributing-institutions-and-experts, last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024).
Our special thanks go to Eloi Ribeiro, former WoSIS database
management expert at ISRIC, for his sustained support and advice
during the refactoring of the ETL procedure. We also thank our
colleague Laura Poggio for useful methodological discussions con-
cerning methodological linkages between WoSIS and SoilGrids.
We gratefully acknowledge Alessandro Samuel-Rosa, Sebastian
Doetterl and the topic editor Sibylle K. Hassler for their comments
which greatly improved the scope of the initial submission.
The ETL procedures and new data model were co-developed in
the framework of the European Union’s Horizon 2020 HoliSoils
project (grant agreement 101000289) and ISRIC’s “global soil in-
formation and standards” workstream.
ISRIC – World Soil Information, legally registered as Interna-
tional Soil Reference and Information Centre, receives core funding
from the Dutch Government.
Financial support.
ISRIC receives core funding from the Dutch
Government. This research has been supported by the EU Horizon
2020 (grant no. 101000289).
Review statement.
This paper was edited by Sibylle K. Hassler
and reviewed by Alessandro Samuel-Rosa and Sebastian Doetterl.
References
Al-Shammary, A. A. G., Kouzani, A. Z., Kaynak, A., Khoo,
S. Y., Norton, M., and Gates, W.: Soil Bulk Density Es-
timation Methods: A Review, Pedosphere, 28, 581–596,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(18)60034-7, 2018.
ANSIS: Australian National Soil Information System, Australian
National Soil Information System, Canberra (AU), https://ansis.
net/ (last access: 26 April 2024), 2023.
Armas, D., Guevara, M., Bezares, F., Vargas, R., Durante, P.,
Osorio, V., Jiménez, W., and Oyonarte, C.: Harmonized Soil
Database of Ecuador (HESD): data from 2009 to 2015, Earth
Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 431–445, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-
431-2023, 2023.
Arrouays, D., Leenaars, J. G. B., Richer-de-Forges, A. C., Ad-
hikari, K., Ballabio, C., Greve, M., Grundy, M., Guerrero, E.,
Hempel, J., Hengl, T., Heuvelink, G., Batjes, N., Carvalho, E.,
Hartemink, A., Hewitt, A., Hong, S.-Y., Krasilnikov, P., La-
gacherie, P., Lelyk, G., Libohova, Z., Lilly, A., McBratney, A.,
McKenzie, N., Vasquez, G. M., Leatitia Mulder, V., Minasny, B.,
Luca, M., Odeh, I., Padarian, J., Poggio, L., Roudier, P., Saby, N.,
Savin, I., Searle, R., Solbovoy, V., Thompson, J., Smith, S., Su-
laeman, Y., Vintila, R., Rossel, R. V., Wilson, P., Zhang, G.-L.,
Swerts, M., Oorts, K., Karklins, A., Feng, L., Ibelles Navarro,
A. R., Levin, A., Laktionova, T., Dell’Acqua, M., Suvannang,
N., Ruam, W., Prasad, J., Patil, N., Husnjak, S., Pasztor, L.,
Okx, J., Hallet, S., Keay, C., Farewell, T., Lilja, H., Juilleret,
J., Marx, S., Takata, Y., Kazuyuki, Y., Mansuy, N., Panagos,
P., Van Liedekerke, M., Skalsky, R., Sobocka, J., Kobza, J.,
Eftekhari, K., Kacem Alavipanah, S., Moussadek, R., Badraoui,
M., Da Silva, M., Paterson, G., da Conceicao Gonsalves, M.,
Theocharopoulos, S., Yemefack, M., Tedou, S., Vrscaj, B., Grob,
U., Kozak, J., Boruvka, L., Dobos, E., Taboada, M., Moretti, L.,
and Rodriguez, D.: Soil legacy data rescue via GlobalSoilMap
and other international and national initiatives, GeoResJ, 14, 1–
19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.grj.2017.06.001, 2017.
Ballabio,
C.,
Panagos,
P.,
and
Monatanarella,
L.:
Map-
ping topsoil physical properties at European scale us-
ing
the
LUCAS
database,
Geoderma,
261,
110–123,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.07.006, 2016.
Baritz, R., Erdogan, H., Fujii, K., Takata, Y., Nocita, M., Bussian,
B., Batjes, N. H., Hempel, J., Wilson, P., and Vargas, R.: Harmo-
nization of methods, measurements and indicators for the sus-
tainable management and protection of soil resources (Providing
mechanisms for the collation, analysis and exchange of consis-
tent and comparable global soil data and information), Global
Soil Partnership, FAO, 44 pp., http://www.fao.org/3/a-az922e.
pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2014.
Baritz, R., Erdogan, H., Ahmadov, H., Ghanma, I., Lalljee, V.
B., Wongmaneeroj, A., Collins, A., Monger, C., Ribeiro, J. L.,
Bertsch, F., Lalljee, V. B., with, Montanarella, L., Comerma,
J., Khan, A., VandenBygaart, B., Gaistardo, C. C., Constantini,
E., Galbraith, J. M., Schad, P., Lame, F., Suvannang, N., Hart-
mann, C., Medyckyj-Scott, D., Batjes, N. H., van Liedekerke,
M., and Ziadat, F.: Implementation Plan for Pillar Five of the
Global Soil Partnership: Providing mechanisms for the collation,
analysis and exchange of consistent and comparable global soil
data and information, ITPS, Rome, 48 pp., http://www.fao.org/3/
a-bs756e.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2017.
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4761
Baroni, G., Zink, M., Kumar, R., Samaniego, L., and Attinger, S.:
Effects of uncertainty in soil properties on simulated hydrologi-
cal states and fluxes at different spatio-temporal scales, Hydrol.
Earth Syst. Sci., 21, 2301–2320, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-21-
2301-2017, 2017.
Batjes, N. H.: A world dataset of derived soil properties by FAO–
UNESCO soil unit for global modelling, Soil Use Manage.,
13, 9–16, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.1997.tb00550.x,
1997.
Batjes, N. H.: Harmonized soil profile data for applications at
global and continental scales: updates to the WISE database,
Soil Use Manage., 25, 124–127, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-
2743.2009.00202.x, 2009.
Batjes,
N.
H.:
Harmonised
soil
property
values
for
broad-scale
modelling
(WISE30sec)
with
estimates
of
global
soil
carbon
stocks,
Geoderma,
269,
61–68,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.01.034 2016.
Batjes, N. H.: Options for harmonising soil data obtained from dif-
ferent sources ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen, 21
pp., https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdc-6ztd-eb19 2023.
Batjes, N. H. and Bridges, E. M.: Potential emissions of radiatively
active gases from soil to atmosphere with special reference to
methane: development of a global database (WISE), J. Geophys.
Res., 99, 16479–16489, https://doi.org/10.1029/93JD03278,
1994.
Batjes, N. H., Ribeiro, E., van Oostrum, A., Leenaars, J., Hengl,
T., and Mendes de Jesus, J.: WoSIS: providing standardised
soil profile data for the world, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 9, 1–14,
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-9-1-2017, 2017.
Batjes, N. H., Ribeiro, E., and van Oostrum, A.: Standardised
soil profile data to support global mapping and modelling
(WoSIS snapshot 2019), Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 299–320,
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-299-2020, 2020.
Batjes, N. H. and van Oostrum, A. J. M.: WoSIS Pro-
cedures for standardizing soil analytical method descrip-
tions, ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen, 46 pp.,
https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-1dq0-1m83, 2023.
Batlle-Bayer, L., Batjes, N. H., and Bindraban, P. S.: Changes in
organic carbon stocks upon land use conversion in the Brazil-
ian Cerrado: A review, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 137, 47–58,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2010.02.003, 2010.
Bispo, A., Arrouays, D., Saby, N., Boulonne, L., and Fan-
tappiè, M.: Proposal of methodological development for
the
LUCAS
programme
in
accordance
with
national
monitoring
programmes.
Towards
climate-smart
sus-
tainable
management
of
agricultural
soils
(EU
H2020-
SFS-2018-2020/H2020-SFS-2019)
EJP
Soil,
135
pp.,
https://ejpsoil.eu/fileadmin/projects/ejpsoil/WP6/EJP_SOIL_
Deliverable_6.3_Dec_2021_final.pdf (last access: 26 April
2024), 2021.
Blakemore, L. C., Searle, P. L., and Daly, B. K.: Methods for chem-
ical analysis of soils, Department of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search, Lower Hutt, NZ, https://cdm20022.contentdm.oclc.org/
digital/collection/p20022coll2/id/139/ (last access: 17 October
2024), 1981.
Bridges,
E.
M.:
Soil
horizon
designations:
past
use
and
future
prospects,
CATENA,
20,
363–373,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(05)80002-5, 1993.
Brus, D. J., Kempen, B., and Heuvelink, G. B. M.: Sampling for
validation of digital soil maps, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 62, 394–407,
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2011.01364.x, 2011.
Brus, J.: Spatial sampling with R, Chapman and Hall R/C, New
York, 2022.
Calisto, L.: ISRIC GraphQL web services for WoSIS and ISIS data
access, ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen, https://
graphql.isric.org/ (last access: 26 April 2024), 2023.
Calisto, L., de Souza, L. M., and Batjes, N. H.: Standard-
ised soil profile data for the world (WoSIS, December snap-
shot), ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen [data set],
https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdcsoils-20231130, 2023.
Cornu, S., Keesstra, S., Bispo, A., Fantappie, M., van Egmond,
F., Smreczak, B., Wawer, R., Pavlù, L., Sobocká, J., Bakacsi,
Z., Farkas-Iványi, K., Molnár, S., Møller, A. B., Madenoglu,
S., Feiziene, D., Oorts, K., Schneider, F., Gonçalves, M.
d. C., Mano, R., Garland, G., Skalský, R., O’Sullivan, L.,
Kasparinskis, R., and Chenu, C.: National soil data in EU
countries, where do we stand?, Eur. J. Soil Sci., e13398,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13398, 2023.
Cox, S. and David, J.: ISO 19156:2011 Geographic information –
Observations and measurements International Organization for
Standardization, https://www.iso.org/standard/32574.html (last
access: 26 April 2024), 2011.
Cramer, M. D., Wootton, L. M., van Mazijk, R., and Ver-
boom, G. A.: New regionally modelled soil layers im-
prove prediction of vegetation type relative to that based
on global soil models, Divers. Distrib., 25, 1736–1750,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12973, 2019.
Cressie, N. and Kornak, J.: Spatial statistics in the pres-
ence
of
location
error
with
an
application
to
remote
sensing
of
the
environment,
Stat.
Sci.,
18,
436–456,
https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1081443228, 2003.
Dai, Y., Shangguan, W., Wei, N., Xin, Q., Yuan, H., Zhang, S.,
Liu, S., Lu, X., Wang, D., and Yan, F.: A review of the global
soil property maps for Earth system models, SOIL, 5, 137–158,
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-5-137-2019, 2019.
de Sousa, L., Kempen, B., Mendes de Jesus, J., Yigini, Y., Viatkin,
K., Medyckyj-Scott, D., Richie, D. A., Wilson, P., van Egmond,
F., and Baritz, R.: Conceptual design of the Global Soil Informa-
tion System infrastructure, Rome, FAO and ISRIC, Wageningen,
Netherlands, 30 pp., http://www.fao.org/3/cb4355en/cb4355en.
pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2021.
de Sousa, L. M.: WoSIS data model 2023. Procedures Manual –
Technical documentation, ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wa-
geningen, https://git.wur.nl/isric/databases/wosis-docs (last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024), 2023.
de Sousa, L. M., Kempen, B., Mendes de Jesus, J., Yigini, Y.,
Viatkin, K., Medyckyj-Scott, D., Richie, A., Wilson, P., van
Egmond, F., and Baritz, R.: Conceptual desing of the Global
Soil Information System infrastructure, ISRIC, FAO, Man-
aaki Whenua (Landcare Research), CSIRO, Wageningen UR,
European Environment Agency, 30 pp., http://www.fao.org/3/
cb4355en/cb4355en.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2019.
de Sousa, L. M., Calisto, L., van Genuchten, P., Turdukulov, U.,
and Kempen, B.: Data model for the ISO 28258 domain model,
ISRIC – World Soil Informatiom, https://iso28258.isric.org/ (last
access: 26 April 2024), 2023.
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4762
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
Dijkshoorn, J. A., Huting, J. R. M., and Tempel, P.: Update
of the 1:5 million Soil and Terrain Database for Latin
America and the Caribbean (SOTERLAC, ver. 2.0), ISRIC
– World Soil Information, Wageningen, Report 2005/01,
https://www.isric.org/documents/document-type/isric-report-
200501-update-15-million-soil-and-terrain-database-latin
(last
access: 24 April 2024), 2005.
Fantappie, M., Peruginelli, G., Conti, S., Rennes, S., van Egmond,
F. M., and Le Bas, C.: Towards climate-smart sustainable man-
agement of agricultural soils: Deliverable 6.2 Report on the
national and EU regulations on agricultural soil data sharing
and national monitoring activities, 202 pp., https://edepot.wur.
nl/642353 (last access: 24 April 2024), 2021.
FAO: Guidelines for the description of soils, 2nd edn., FAO, Rome,
66 pp., 1977.
FAO: Guidelines for soil description, 3rd rev. edn., FAO, Rome,
45 pp., https://edepot.wur.nl/570291 (last access: 24 April 2024),
1990.
FAO: Guidelines for soil description, 4th edn., FAO, Rome, 97
pp., http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/a0541e/a0541e.pdf (last ac-
cess: 24 April 2024), 2006.
FAO and ISRIC: Soil and Terrain database for Southern Africa (1:2
million scale), ISRIC and FAO, Rome, FAO Land and Water Dig-
ital Media Series 25, 2003.
FAO and ITPS: Status of the world’s soil resources (SWSR) – Main
report, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, Rome, 650 pp.,
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5199e.pdf (last access: 24 April 2024),
2015.
FAO, ISRIC, UNEP, and CIP: Soil and terrain digital database for
Latin America and the Caribbean at 1
:
5 million scale, Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Land and
Water Digital Media Series No. 5, 1998.
FAO, ISRIC, and UG: Soil and terrain database for central Africa
(Burundi and Rwanda 1
:
1 million scale; Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo 1
:
2 million scale), Food and Agricultural Or-
ganization of the United Nations, ISRIC – World Soil Infor-
mation and Universiteit Gent, Rome, Land and Water Digital
Media Series 33, https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/isric_
report_2006_07.pdf (last access: 24 April 2024), 2007.
FAO, IIASA, ISRIC, ISSCAS, and JRC: Harmonized World Soil
Database (version 1.2), prepared by: Nachtergaele, F. O., van
Velthuizen, H., Verelst, L., Wiberg, D., Batjes, N. H., Di-
jkshoorn, J. A., van Engelen, V. W. P., Fischer, G., Jones,
A., Montanarella, L., Petri, M., Prieler, S., Teixeira, E., and
Xuezheng, S., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis (IIASA), ISRIC – World Soil Information, Institute
of Soil Science – Chinese Academy of Sciences (ISSCAS),
Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC),
Laxenburg, Austria, http://webarchive.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/
External-World-soil-database/HWSD_Documentation.pdf (last
access: 24 April 2024), 2012.
Finke, P.: Quality assessment of digital soil maps: producers and
users perspectives, in: Digital soil mapping: An introductory per-
spective, edited by: Lagacherie, P., McBratney, A., and Voltz, M.,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 523–541, 2006.
Folberth, C., Skalsky, R., Moltchanova, E., Balkovic, J., Azevedo,
L. B., Obersteiner, M., and van der Velde, M.: Uncer-
tainty in soil data can outweigh climate impact signals in
global crop yield simulations, Nat. Commun., 7, 11872,
https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11872, 2016.
Gerasimova,
M.
I.,
Lebedeva,
I.
I.,
and
Khitrov,
N.
B.:
Soil
horizon
designation:
State
of
the
art,
prob-
lems, and proposals, Eurasian Soil Sci., 46, 599–609,
https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229313050037, 2013.
Giller, K. E., Rowe, E. C., de Ridder, N., and van Keulen,
H.: Resource use dynamics and interactions in the trop-
ics: Scaling up in space and time, Agr. Syst., 88, 8–27,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2005.06.016, 2006.
GlobalSoilMap:
Specifications
Tiered
GlobalSoilMap
prod-
ucts (Release 2.4), 52 pp., https://www.isric.org/documents/
document-type/globalsoilmap-specifications-v24-07122015
(last access: 24 April 2024), 2015.
GLOSOLAN: GLOSOLAN best practice manual (on-line),
FAO, GSP, Rome, https://www.fao.org/global-soil-partnership/
glosolan-old/soil-analysis/standard-operating-procedures/en/
#c763834 (last access: 24 April 2024), 2023.
Gobezie, T. B. and Biswas, A.: Break barriers in soil data steward-
ship by rewarding data generators, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 4,
353–354, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-023-00439-4, 2023.
Grimm, R. and Behrens, T.: Uncertainty analysis of sample lo-
cations within digital soil mapping approaches, GEODERMA,
155, 154–163, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.006,
2010.
Guevara, M., Olmedo, G. F., Stell, E., Yigini, Y., Aguilar Duarte,
Y., Arellano Hernández, C., Arévalo, G. E., Arroyo-Cruz, C. E.,
Bolivar, A., Bunning, S., Bustamante Cañas, N., Cruz-Gaistardo,
C. O., Davila, F., Dell Acqua, M., Encina, A., Figueredo Tacona,
H., Fontes, F., Hernández Herrera, J. A., Ibelles Navarro, A. R.,
Loayza, V., Manueles, A. M., Mendoza Jara, F., Olivera, C., Os-
orio Hermosilla, R., Pereira, G., Prieto, P., Ramos, I. A., Rey
Brina, J. C., Rivera, R., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, J., Roopnarine,
R., Rosales Ibarra, A., Rosales Riveiro, K. A., Schulz, G. A.,
Spence, A., Vasques, G. M., Vargas, R. R., and Vargas, R.: No
silver bullet for digital soil mapping: country-specific soil or-
ganic carbon estimates across Latin America, SOIL, 4, 173–193,
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-4-173-2018, 2018.
Hassani, A., Smith, P., and Shokri, N.: Negative correla-
tion between soil salinity and soil organic carbon vari-
ability,
P.
Natl.
Acad.
Sci.
USA,
121,
e2317332121,
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2317332121, 2024.
Hengl, T., de Jesus, J. M., Heuvelink, G. B. M., Gonza-
lez, M. R., Kilibarda, M., Blagotic, A., Shangguan, W.,
Wright, M. N., Geng, X. Y., Bauer-Marschallinger, B., Gue-
vara, M. A., Vargas, R., MacMillan, R. A., Batjes, N. H.,
Leenaars, J. G. B., Ribeiro, E., Wheeler, I., Mantel, S., and
Kempen, B.: SoilGrids250m: Global gridded soil informa-
tion based on machine learning, PLoS ONE, 12, e0169748,
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169748, 2017.
Heuvelink, G. B. M.: Uncertainty quantification of GlobalSoilMap
products in: GlobalSoilMap. Basis of the Global Spatial Soil
Information System, edited by: Arrouays, D., McKenzie, N.,
Hempel, J., Forges, A. R. D., and McBratney, A., Taylor & Fran-
cis Group, London, UK, 335–240, 2014.
Heuvelink, G. B. M., Brown, J. D., and van Loon, E. E.: A prob-
abilistic framework for representing and simulating uncertain
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4763
environmental variables, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci., 21, 497–513,
https://doi.org/10.1080/13658810601063951, 2007.
Heuvelink, G. B. M., Angelini, M. E., Poggio, L., Bai, Z. G., Batjes,
N. H., van den Bosch, R., Bossio, D., Estella, S., Lehmann, J.,
Olmedo, G. F., and Sanderman, J.: Machine learning in space
and time for modelling soil organic carbon change, Eur. J. Soil
Sci., 72, 1607–1623, https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12998, 2021.
Huang, Y., Song, X., Wang, Y.-P., Canadell, J. G., Luo, Y.,
Ciais, P., Chen, A., Hong, S., Wang, Y., Tao, F., Li, W., Xu,
Y., Mirzaeitalarposhti, R., Elbasiouny, H., Savin, I., Shchep-
ashchenko, D., Rossel, R. A. V., Goll, D. S., Chang, J., Houl-
ton, B. Z., Wu, H., Yang, F., Feng, X., Chen, Y., Liu, Y.,
Niu, S., and Zhang, G.-L.: Size, distribution, and vulnerabil-
ity of the global soil inorganic carbon, Science, 384, 233–239,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adi7918, 2024.
ICP Forests: ICP Forests monitoring Manual. Part XVI: Quality
assurance and control in laboratories (ver 2020-1), Eberswalde,
Germany, 46 pp., https://www.icp-forests.org/pdf/manual/2020/
ICP_Manual_part16_2020_QAQC_Labs_version_2020-1.pdf
(last access: 26 April 2024), 2020.
ICP Forests: ICP Forests monitoring Manual. Part X: Sampling and
analysis of soil, Eberswalde, Germany, https://storage.ning.com/
topology/rest/1.0/file/get/9995584862?profile=original (last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024), 2021a.
ICP Forests: ICP Forests monitoring Manual Eberswalde (Ger-
many), http://icp-forests.net/page/icp-forests-manual (last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024), 2021b.
ISO-19139: Geographic information XML schema implementation
Part 1: Encoding rules, https://www.iso.org/standard/67253.html
(last access: 26 April 2024), 2019.
ISRIC: Data and Software Policy, ISRIC – World Soil Information
(WDC – Soils) Wageningen, 6 pp., https://www.isric.org/sites/
default/files/user/ISRIC_Data_Policy_2016jun21doi.pdf
(last
access: 26 April 2024), 2016.
IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil
Resources, 2nd edn., FAO, Rome, World Soil Resources
Report 103, 145 pp., http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/wrb/doc/
wrb2006final.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2006.
IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for soil re-
sources 2014 – International soil classification system for naming
soils and creating legends for soil maps (update 2015), Global
Soil Partnership, International Union of Soil Sciences, and Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome,
World Soil Resources Reports 106, 182 pp., http://www.fao.org/
3/i3794en/I3794en.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2015.
IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for soil re-
sources 2022 – International soil classification system for naming
soils and creating legends for soil maps, International Union of
Soil Sciences, Vienna (Austria), 284 pp., https://www.isric.org/
sites/default/files/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18.pdf (last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024), 2022.
Ivushkin, K., Bartholomeus, H., Bregt, A. K., Pulatov, A.,
Kempen, B., and de Sousa, L.: Global mapping of soil
salinity
change,
Remote
Sens.
Environ.,
231,
111260,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111260, 2019.
Kalra, Y. P. and Maynard, D. G.: Methods manual for
forest soil and plant analysis, Forestry Canada, Edmon-
ton (Alberta), 116 pp., https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/
download-pdf/11845 (last access: 26 April 2024), 1991.
Leenaars, J. G. B., van Oostrum, A. J. M., and Ruiperez Gonza-
lez, M.: Africa Soil Profiles Database: A compilation of georef-
erenced and standardised legacy soil profile data for Sub Saha-
ran Africa (version 1.2), Africa Soil Information Service (Af-
SIS) and ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen, Report
2014/01, 160 pp., http://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/isric_
report_2014_01.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2014.
Leenaars, J. G. B., Claessens, L., Heuvelink, G. B. M., Hengl,
T., Ruiperez González, M., van Bussel, L. G. J., Guil-
part, N., Yang, H., and Cassman, K. G.: Mapping rootable
depth and root zone plant-available water holding capacity
of the soil of sub-Saharan Africa, Geoderma, 324, 18–36,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.02.046, 2018.
Luo, Z., Viscarra-Rossel, R. A., and Qian, T.: Similar impor-
tance of edaphic and climatic factors for controlling soil or-
ganic carbon stocks of the world, Biogeosciences, 18, 2063–
2073, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-2063-2021, 2021.
Lutz,
F.,
Stoorvogel,
J.
J.,
and
Müller,
C.:
Options
to
model
the
effects
of
tillage
on
N
2
O
emissions
at
the
global
scale,
Ecol.
Model.,
392,
212–225,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.015, 2019.
Magnusson, B. and Örnemark, U.: The Fitness for Purpose of Ana-
lytical Methods – A Laboratory Guide to Method Validation and
Related Topics, 2nd edn., Eurachem, https://www.eurachem.org/
images/stories/Guides/pdf/MV_guide_2nd_ed_EN.pdf (last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024), 2014.
Maire, V., Wright, I. J., Prentice, I. C., Batjes, N. H., Bhaskar,
R., van Bodegom, P. M., Cornwell, W. K., Ellsworth, D.,
Niinemets, U., Ordonez, A., Reich, P. B., and Santiago, L.
S.: Global effects of soil and climate on leaf photosyn-
thetic traits and rates, Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr., 24, 706–717,
https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12296, 2015.
Malhotra, A., Todd-Brown, K., Nave, L. E., Batjes, N. H.,
Holmquist, J. R., Hoyt, A. M., Iversen, C. M., Jackson,
R. B., Lajtha, K., Lawrence, C., Vinduskova, O., Wieder,
W., Williams, M., Hugelius, G., and Harden, J.: The land-
scape of soil carbon data: emerging questions, synergies and
databases, Prog. Phys. Geogr.-Earth and Environment, 43, 707–
719, https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133319873309, 2019.
Meyer,
H.
and
Pebesma,
E.:
Predicting
into
unknown
space?
Estimating
the
area
of
applicability
of
spatial
prediction models, Methods Ecol. Evol., 12, 1620–1633,
https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.13650, 2021.
Moulatlet, G. M., Zuquim, G., Figueiredo, F. O. G., Lehtonen,
S., Emilio, T., Ruokolainen, K., and Tuomisto, H.: Using dig-
ital soil maps to infer edaphic affinities of plant species in
Amazonia: Problems and prospects, Ecol. Evol., 7, 8463–8477,
https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3242, 2017.
Munzert, M., Kießling, G., Übelhör, W., Nätscher, L., and Neubert,
K.-H.: Expanded measurement uncertainty of soil parameters de-
rived from proficiency-testing data, J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci., 170,
722–728, https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.200620701, 2007.
NATP: North American Proficiency Testing (NAPT) Program, http:
//www.naptprogram.org/ (last access: 26 April 2024), 2015.
Nenkam, A. M., Wadoux, A. M. J. C., Minasny, B., McBrat-
ney, A. B., Traore, P. C. S., Falconier, G. N., and Whit-
bread, A. M.: Using homosoils for quantitative extrapola-
tion of soil mapping models, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 73, e13285,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13285, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
4764
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
NPDB: National Pedon Database Canada, Agriculture and Agri-
food Canada, https://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/nsdb/npdb/index.html
(last access: 26 April 2024), 2023.
OGC: Soil Data IE (Interoperability Experiment), Open Geospatial
Consortium (OGC), https://www.opengeospatial.org/projects/
initiatives/soildataie (last access: 26 April 2024), 2019.
Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N.
D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D’amico, J. A., Itoua,
I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F.,
Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W.,
Hedao, P., and Kassem, K. R.: Terrestrial Ecoregions of the
World: A New Map of Life on Earth: A new global map of terres-
trial ecoregions provides an innovative tool for conserving biodi-
versity, BioScience, 51, 933–938, https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-
3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2, 2001.
Olson, R. J., Johnson, K. R., Zheng, D. L., and Scurlock, J.
M. O.: Global and regional ecosystem modelling: databases of
model drivers and validation measurements, Oak Ridge Na-
tional Laboratory, Oak Ridge, ORNL/TM-2001/196, 95 pp., http:
//www-eosdis.ornl.gov/npp/GPPDI/comp/NPP_TM196.pdf (last
access: 26 April 2024), 2001.
Orgiazzi, A., Ballabio, C., Panagos, P., Jones, A., and Fernandez-
Ugalde, O.: LUCAS Soil, the largest expandable soil dataset
for Europe: a review, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 69, 140–153,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12499, 2018.
Padarian, J. and McBratney, A. B.: A new model for intra-
and inter-institutional soil data sharing, SOIL, 6, 89–94,
https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-6-89-2020, 2020.
Palma, R., Janiak, B., Sousa, L. M. D., Schleidt, K., Tomáš
Rezník, Egmond, F. v., Leenaars, J., Moshou, D., Mouazen,
A., Peter Wilson, Medyckyj-Scott, D., Ritchie, A., Yig-
ini, Y., and Vargas, R.: GloSIS: The Global Soil Informa-
tion System Web Ontology, arXiv [preprint], 2403.16778,
https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2403.16778, 2024.
Poeplau, C., Don, A., Flessa, H., Heidkamp, A., Jacobs, A., and
Prietz, R.: Erste Bodenzustandserhebung Landwirtschaft – Kern-
datensatz, Thünen-Institut, I. f. A., Göttingen, 2020.
Poggio, L., de Sousa, L. M., Batjes, N. H., Heuvelink, G. B. M.,
Kempen, B., Ribeiro, E., and Rossiter, D.: SoilGrids 2.0: pro-
ducing soil information for the globe with quantified spatial un-
certainty, SOIL, 7, 217–240, https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-217-
2021, 2021.
Rayment, E. R. and Lyons, D. J.: Soil chemical methods – Australa-
sia, CSIRO Publishing, 495 pp., 2011.
R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Com-
puting, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, https:
//www.R-project.org (last access: 26 April 2024), 2021.
Ribeiro, E., Batjes, N. H., Leenaars, J. G. B., Van Oostrum, A. J. M.,
and Mendes de Jesus, J.: Towards the standardization and har-
monization of world soil data: Procedures Manual ISRIC World
Soil Information Service (WoSIS version 2.0) ISRIC – World
Soil Information, Wageningen, Report 2015/03, 110 pp., http:
//www.isric.org/sites/default/files/isric_report_2015_03.pdf (last
access: 26 April 2024), 2015.
Ribeiro, E., Batjes, N. H., and Van Oostrum, A. J. M.: World
Soil Information Service (WoSIS) – Towards the standardiza-
tion and harmonization of world soil data. Procedures Manual
2020, ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen, ISRIC Re-
port 2020/01, 153 pp., https://doi.org/10.17027/isric-wdc-2020-
01, 2020.
Robinson, N. J., Dahlhaus, P. G., Wong, M., MacLeod, A.,
Jones, D., and Nicholson, C.: Testing the public–private
soil data and information sharing model for sustainable
soil management outcomes, Soil Use Manage., 35, 94–104,
https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12472, 2019.
Rossel, R. A. V. and McBratney, A. B.: Soil chemical analytical ac-
curacy and costs: implications from precision agriculture, Aus-
tralian J. Exp. Agric., 38, 765–775, 1998.
Sanderman, J., Hengl, T., and Fiske, G. J.: Soil carbon debt of
12,000 years of human land use, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114,
9575–9580, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1706103114, 2017.
Sayre,
R.:
World
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
(WTE)
2020,
U.S.
Geological
Survey
data
release
[data
set],
https://doi.org/10.5066/P9DO61LP, 2022.
Sayre, R., Dangermond, J., Frye, C., Vaughan, R., Aniello, P.,
Breyer, S., Cribbs, D., Hopkins, D., Nauman, R., Derren-
bacher, W., Burton, D., Grosse, A., True, D., Metzger, M.,
Hartmann, J., Moosdorf, N., Dürr, H., Paganini, M., DeFourny,
P., Arino, O., and Maynard, S.: A New Map of Global Eco-
logical Land Units – An Ecophysiographic Stratification Ap-
proach, Association of American Geographers, Washington DC,
46 pp., https://www.aag.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/AAG_
Global_Ecosyst_bklt72.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2014.
Schoeneberger, P. J., Wysocki, D. A., Benham, E. C., and Soil Sur-
vey Staff: Field book for describing and sampling soils (ver. 3.0,
Reprint 2021), National Soil Survey Center Natural Resources
Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Lincoln
(NE), 2012.
Shepherd, K. D., Ferguson, R., Hoover, D., van Egmond, F.,
Sanderman, J., and Ge, Y.: A global soil spectral calibra-
tion library and estimation service, Soil Security, 7, 100061,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soisec.2022.100061, 2022.
Shi, G., Shangguan, W., Zhang, Y., Li, Q., Wang, C., and Li,
L.-J.: Reducing Location Error of Legacy Soil Profiles Leads
to Significant Improvement in Digital Soil Mapping, SSRN,
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4643055, 2023.
Soil Survey Division Staff: Soil survey manual, Soil Conservation
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 503 pp.,
1993.
Soil Survey Staff: Soil Survey Laboratory Information Manual
(Ver. 2.0), National Soil Survey Center, Soil Survey Labora-
tory, USDA-NRCS, Lincoln (NE), Soil Survey Investigation Re-
port No. 45, 506 pp., http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_
DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052226.pdf (last access: 26 April
2024), 2011.
Soil Survey Staff: Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12th ed., USDA-Natural
Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC, 2014.
Soil Survey Staff: Soil Survey Manual (rev. ed.), edited by: Ditzler,
C., Scheffe, K., and Monger, H. C., United States Agriculture
Handbook 18, USDA, Washington, 2017.
Soil Survey Staff: Soil Survey Laboratory Methods Manual (Ver-
sion 6.0., Part1: Curren methods), U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Lincoln (Ne-
braska), 1001 pp., 2022a.
Soil Survey Staff: Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 13th edn., USDA-
Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC.,
2022b.
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
N. H. Batjes et al.: WoSIS snapshot 2023
4765
Sothe, C., Gonsamo, A., Arabian, J., and Snider, J.: Large scale
mapping of soil organic carbon concentration with 3D machine
learning and satellite observations, Geoderma, 405, 115402,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115402, 2022.
Suvannang, N., Hartmann, C., Yakimenko, O., Solokha, M.,
Bertsch, F., and Moody, P.: Evaluation of the First Global Soil
Laboratory Network (GLOSOLAN) online survey for assessing
soil laboratory capacities, Global Soil Partnership (GSP)/Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),
Rome, GLOSOLAN/18/Survey Report, 54 pp., http://www.fao.
org/3/CA2852EN/ca2852en.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024),
2018.
Tempel, P., van Kraalingen, D., Mendes de Jesus, J., and Reuter, H.
I.: Towards an ISRIC World Soil Information Service (WOSIS
ver. 1.0), ISRIC – World Soil Information, Wageningen, ISRIC
Report 2013/02, 188 pp., https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/
isric_report_2013_02.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 2013.
Turek, M. E., Poggio, L., Batjes, N. H., Armindo, R. A., de Jong van
Lier, Q., de Sousa, L., and Heuvelink, G. B. M.: Global map-
ping of volumetric water retention at 100, 330 and 15 000 cm
suction using the WoSIS database, Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res.,
11, 225–239, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2022.08.001, 2023.
USDA-NCSS: National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) Soil Char-
acterization Database, United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Lincoln, https://
ncsslabdatamart.sc.egov.usda.gov/database_download.aspx (last
access: 26 April 2024), 2021.
van de Ven, T. and Tempel, P.: ISIS 4.0 – ISRIC Soil In-
formation System: User Manual, International Soil Refer-
ence and Information Centre, Wageningen, Technical Pa-
per 15 (rev. ed.), https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/ISRIC_
TechPap15b.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 1994.
van Engelen, V. W. P., Verdoodt, A., Dijkshoorn, K., and van Ranst,
E.: SOTER database for Central Africa – DR Congo, Burundi
and Rwanda (SOTERCAF; ver. 1.0), Laboratory of Soil Science
(University of Ghent), FAO and ISRIC - World Soil Information,
Wageningen, ISRIC REport 2006/07, 28 pp., http://www.isric.
org/Isric/Webdocs/Docs/ISRIC_Report_2006_07.pdf (last ac-
cess: 15 August 2007), 2006.
van Leeuwen, C., Mulder, V. L., Batjes, N. H., and Heuvelink,
G. B. M.: Statistical modelling of measurement error in
wet chemistry soil data, Eur. J. Soil Sci., 73, 13137,
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13137, 2022.
van Leeuwen, C. C. E., Mulder, V. L., Batjes, N. H., and
Heuvelink, G. B. M.: Effect of measurement error in wet
chemistry soil data on the calibration and model perfor-
mance of pedotransfer functions, Geoderma, 442, 116762,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116762, 2024.
Van Looy, K., Bouma, J., Herbst, M., Koestel, J., Minasny, B.,
Mishra, U., Montzka, C., Nemes, A., Pachepsky, Y., Padarian,
J., Schaap, M., Tóth, B., Verhoef, A., Vanderborght, J., van
der Ploeg, M., Weihermüller, L., Zacharias, S., Zhang, Y., and
Vereecken, H. C. R. G.: Pedotransfer functions in Earth system
science: challenges and perspectives, Rev. Geophys., 55, 1199–
1256, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017RG000581, 2017.
van Reeuwijk, L. P.: On the way to improve international soil
classification and correlation: the variability of soil analyt-
ical data, ISRIC, Wageningen, Annual Report 1983, 7–13
pp., https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/isric_annual_report_
1983.pdf (last access: 26 April 2024), 1983.
Viscarra Rossel, R. A., Behrens, T., Ben-Dor, E., Brown, D. J., De-
mattê, J. A. M., Shepherd, K. D., Shi, Z., Stenberg, B., Stevens,
A., Adamchuk, V., Aïchi, H., Barthès, B. G., Bartholomeus,
H. M., Bayer, A. D., Bernoux, M., Böttcher, K., Brodský,
L., Du, C. W., Chappell, A., Fouad, Y., Genot, V., Gomez,
C., Grunwald, S., Gubler, A., Guerrero, C., Hedley, C. B.,
Knadel, M., Morrás, H. J. M., Nocita, M., Ramirez-Lopez,
L., Roudier, P., Campos, E. M. R., Sanborn, P., Sellitto, V.
M., Sudduth, K. A., Rawlins, B. G., Walter, C., Winowiecki,
L. A., Hong, S. Y., and Ji, W.: A global spectral library to
characterize the world’s soil, Earth-Sci. Rev., 155, 198–230,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.01.012, 2016.
von Haden, A. C., Yang, W. H., and DeLucia, E. H.: Soils’
dirty little secret: Depth-based comparisons can be inade-
quate for quantifying changes in soil organic carbon and other
mineral soil properties, Global Change Biol., 26, 3759–3770,
https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15124, 2020.
Wang, M., Guo, X., Zhang, S., Xiao, L., Mishra, U., Yang, Y.,
Zhu, B., Wang, G., Mao, X., Qian, T., Jiang, T., Shi, Z., and
Luo, Z.: Global soil profiles indicate depth-dependent soil car-
bon losses under a warmer climate, Nat. Commun., 13, 5514,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33278-w, 2022.
Wang, M., Zhang, S., Guo, X., Xiao, L., Yang, Y., Luo, Y., Mishra,
U., and Luo, Z.: Responses of soil organic carbon to climate ex-
tremes under warming across global biomes, Nat. Clim. Change,
14, 98–105, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01874-3, 2024.
WEPAL: ISE Reference Material – A list with all available ISE
reference material samples, WEPAL (Wageningen Evaluating
Programmes for Analytical Laboratories), Wageningen, 110 pp.,
http://www.wepal.nl/website/products/RefMatISE.htm (last ac-
cess: 26 April 2024), 2019.
Wilkinson, M. D., Dumontier, M., Aalbersberg, I. J., Appleton, G.,
Axton, M., Baak, A., Blomberg, N., Boiten, J.-W., da Silva San-
tos, L. B., Bourne, P. E., Bouwman, J., Brookes, A. J., Clark,
T., Crosas, M., Dillo, I., Dumon, O., Edmunds, S., Evelo, C.
T., Finkers, R., Gonzalez-Beltran, A., Gray, A. J. G., Groth, P.,
Goble, C., Grethe, J. S., Heringa, J., ’t Hoen, P. A. C., Hooft, R.,
Kuhn, T., Kok, R., Kok, J., Lusher, S. J., Martone, M. E., Mons,
A., Packer, A. L., Persson, B., Rocca-Serra, P., Roos, M., van
Schaik, R., Sansone, S.-A., Schultes, E., Sengstag, T., Slater, T.,
Strawn, G., Swertz, M. A., Thompson, M., van der Lei, J., van
Mulligen, E., Velterop, J., Waagmeester, A., Wittenburg, P., Wol-
stencroft, K., Zhao, J., and Mons, B.: The FAIR Guiding Princi-
ples for scientific data management and stewardship, Sci. Data,
3, 160018, https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.18, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-4735-2024
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 4735–4765, 2024